Murong Lin

Murong Lin was a general and imperial prince of the /Xianbei state Later Yan. He was a son of the founding emperor Murong Chui and a brother of Murong Bao ; for a while, he himself was a pretender to the Later Yan throne. He was known both for his abilities and his treachery, and he betrayed both his father and his brothers Murong Ling and Murong Bao on separate occasions. Eventually, he was executed by his uncle Murong De, the founder of Southern Yan.

Before Later Yan's founding

The first reference to Murong Lin in history was in 369, when Murong Chui, then a Former Yan prince, fled to Former Qin after he came after suspicion of the emperor Murong Wei's mother and the regent Murong Ping. Previously, Murong Chui's plan was to flee to the old capital Longcheng and occupy it, and then seek reconciliation with Empress Dowager Kezuhun, but on the way, Murong Lin, who was then unfavored by Murong Chui, fled back to the capital Yecheng and revealed his father's plans, forcing his father to readjust his plan and flee to Former Qin instead.

For his treachery, however, Murong Lin appeared to be not appreciated by Empress Kezuhun, and he appeared to have been exiled to Longcheng as a soldier under the command of his cousin Murong Liang the Prince of Bohai -- or possibly to the even more remote Shacheng , described to be 300 kilometers northeast of Longcheng. In 370, after Murong Ling had been tricked by the Former Qin prime minister into defecting back to Former Yan, Murong Ling was exiled to Shacheng, and he started a rebellion with fellow exiles, planning to seize Longcheng, but Murong Lin revealed his plan to Murong Liang, who then prepared for the attack. Murong Ling's subordinate She Gui then rose against him and killed him.

As a result of Murong Lin's treachery, after Former Qin conquered Former Yan later in 370, and Murong Chui accompanied the Former Qin emperor Fu Jiān in entering Yecheng, Murong Chui put Murong Lin's mother to death, but did not have the heart to execute Murong Lin as well, but only expelled him from the household and ordered him to live elsewhere. However, in late 383 and 384, as Murong Chui rose against Former Qin following Fu Jiān's defeat at the Battle of Fei River at the hand of troops, Murong Lin offered many useful strategies to his father, and his father changed his view of Murong Lin, favoring him as much as other sons.

During Murong Chui's reign

After Murong Chui officially declared independence and established Later Yan later in 384, Murong Lin served as one of his generals in campaigns against Former Qin remnants, semi-independent warlords, and other states. He appeared to be effective in these campaigns. In 386, Murong Chui created him the Prince of Zhao. In 386-387 and 390-391, he commanded armies to, in conjunction with the Later Yan vassal Northern Wei's prince , fight the Xiongnu chieftain Liu Xian and later other rebels that threatened Tuoba Gui's safety. It was in 391 when he saw Tuoba Gui's abilities, and he recommended to Murong Chui to force Tuoba Gui to take up residence at the Later Yan capital Zhongshan and entrust Northern Wei to a brother. Murong Chui refused.

After Tuoba Gui renounced his allegiance to Later Yan in 391, he began to harass Later Yan borders, and in 395, Murong Chui sent his crown prince Murong Bao to lead an expedition, with Murong Lin and Murong Nong the Prince of Liaoxi as his assistant commanders. However, during the campaign, as Later Yan and Northern Wei armies stalemated across the Yellow River near the Northern Wei capital Shengle , Tuoba Gui spread false rumors that Murong Chui was dead, and Murong Lin's subordinates Muyu Song tried to start a coup to overthrow Murong Bao and make Murong Lin emperor, but was discovered and killed. This led to friction between the brothers, and the Later Yan forces withdrew. Murong Bao left Murong Lin to be rear guard against a Northern Wei attack, but Murong Lin did not take Tuoba Gui seriously and therefore did not look for Northern Wei troops, and Tuoba Gui intercepted Murong Bao's main forces at and annihilated most of the troops, leading to further ambition by Tuoba Gui to eventually conquer Later Yan. In 396, Murong Chui personally led a campaign against Northern Wei that had initial successes, but as the army passed through Canhe Slope, they mourned in such a great manner that Murong Chui, in shame and anger, grew ill, and the army was forced to retreat. He died soon thereafter and was succeeded by Murong Bao.

During Murong Bao's reign

Despite the suspicions that they might have had of each other prior to the defeat at Canhe Slope, Murong Bao and Murong Lin reconciled, and Murong Lin was initially one of Murong Bao's most trusted generals. After Tuoba Gui defeated Murong Nong and seized Bing Province , he headed for Zhongshan, and Murong Bao put Murong Lin in charge of Zhongshan's defenses. Murong Lin advocated defending the city and not engaging Northern Wei forces, much to Murong Nong and Murong Long's frustration.

In spring 397, however, as Zhongshan remained under siege by Northern Wei forces, Murong Lin tried to start a coup inside the city to overthrow Murong Bao. After his attempt failed, he fled out of Zhongshan and took up post in the Taihang Mountains. Apprehensive that Murong Lin might seize relief forces commanded by the Prince of Qinghe, Murong Bao abandoned Zhongshan. The people of Zhongshan initially supported Murong Xiang the Duke of Kaifeng as their leader to continue resisting Northern Wei. In summer 397, Murong Xiang claimed imperial title, but drew the anger of the people because he, apprehensive of Northern Wei forces , refused to let the citizens, under a severe famine, to forage food outside the city, and was cruel in his rule. Murong Lin made a surprise attack on Zhongshan, whose gates were opened for him, and he arrested and killed Murong Xiang. Murong Lin then himself claimed imperial title and permitted the people to forage food -- but then, failed to take the opportunity after enough food was gathered to engage Northern Wei forces, and eventually, as wild food dwindled, Northern Wei forces defeated him and captured Zhongshan. He fled to Yecheng to the protection of his uncle Murong De the Prince of Fanyang .

Murong Lin advised Murong De that Yecheng was too large of a city to defend, and that he should consider abandoning it and taking up position at Huatai south of the Yellow River. Murong De agreed and abandoned Yecheng, taking up residence at Huatai. Then, Murong Lin offered imperial title to Murong De, who did not take such title but assumed imperial powers under the title Prince of Yan, thus establishing Southern Yan. He made Murong Lin a key general, but Murong Lin then planned another rebellion, and Murong De executed him.

Murong Long

Murong Long , formally Prince Kang of Gaoyang , was a general and imperial prince of the /Xianbei state Later Yan. He was a son of the founding emperor Murong Chui and a brother of Murong Bao , and when his brother's empire was under threat from the rival Northern Wei's prince , he tried to save it, but was killed by his nephew , intent on seizing power from both his father and his uncles.

Before Later Yan's founding

The first reference to Murong Long in history was in 369, when Murong Chui, then a Former Yan prince, fled to Former Qin after he came after suspicion of the emperor Murong Wei's mother and the regent Murong Ping; Murong Long was one of his sons who fled with him. When Murong Chui subsequently resolved to rebel against Former Qin after its emperor Fu Jiān was defeated at the Battle of Fei River in his attempt to conquer and reunite China, Murong Long was involved in his first act of rebellion — massacring the Di soldiers that Murong Chui's deputy, Fu Feilong , commanded. Murong Chui subsequently declared the independence of Later Yan in 384.

During Murong Chui's reign

Throughout the next few years, Murong Long largely served as a general directly under his father's command, as Later Yan tried to establish itself over the old territory of Former Yan. In 384, when Murong Chui was nearly trapped by an ambush by the Former Qin viceroy Fu Pi, Murong Long was the one who rescued him from the encounter. In 386, Murong Chui created him the Prince of Gaoyang. He continued to distinguish himself in campaigns against independent warlords and Jin generals. In 389, when his brother Murong Nong, himself a distinguished general, was recalled from his post as viceroy at the old Former Yan capital Longcheng , Murong Long replaced him as viceroy, and he followed Murong Nong's policies. The populace favored him as much as Murong Nong.

During Murong Chui's reign, Murong Nong and Murong Long were the most well-regarded princes. Because of this, Murong Chui's wife Empress Duan Yuanfei once suggested to him that the crown prince Murong Bao lacked abilities to govern, and Murong Chui should choose either Murong Nong or Murong Long instead. Murong Chui, believing Murong Bao to be capable, rejected her suggestion.

Around the new year 396, after an army commanded by Murong Bao had suffered a crushing defeat by Northern Wei's prince at the Battle of Canhe Slope, Murong Chui planned a second campaign against Northern Wei, and he recalled Murong Long and his troops back to the capital Zhongshan , replacing him as viceroy with Murong Bao's son the Duke of Qinghe. With Murong Long's fresh troops leading the way and with Murong Long and Murong Nong as forward commanders, the campaign against Northern Wei was initially successful, but as the army passed through Canhe Slope, they mourned in such a great manner that Murong Chui, in shame and anger, grew ill, and the army was forced to retreat. He died soon thereafter and was succeeded by Murong Bao.

During Murong Bao's reign

Murong Bao, although aware of Empress Duan's earlier suggestion to make Murong Nong or Murong Long crown prince , appeared to trust his brothers greatly. However, in fall 396, Northern Wei launched a major campaign against Later Yan, and Tuoba Gui, after defeating Murong Nong and seizing Bing Province , then advanced against Zhongshan. Murong Bao put another brother, Murong Lin the Prince of Zhao, in charge of Zhongshan's defenses, and Murong Lin advocated the strategy of defending the city and not engaging Northern Wei, much to Murong Long and Murong Nong's frustration.

In spring 397, after Murong Lin failed in a coup attempt, he fled out of the capital, and Murong Bao, in fear that Murong Lin would seize a relief force commanded by his son Murong Hui the Prince of Qinghe, decided to abandon Zhongshan. Murong Nong's and Murong Long's subordinates tried to persuade each to stay in Zhongshan rather than to follow Murong Bao, but each refused, feeling that loyalty to their brother required them to follow him. They therefore followed Murong Bao and joined Murong Hui's army.

However, Murong Hui was resentful that he was not made crown prince, a position given to his younger brother Murong Ce , and he considered seizing the position by force. Murong Bao, realizing this, tried to transfer some of Murong Hui's army to the commands of Murong Nong and Murong Long, but this only made Murong Hui more resentful, and he acted first against his uncles, sending assassins against them. Murong Long was killed, but Murong Nong survived the attack but was severely wounded , and Murong Hui, who then openly declared a coup, was then defeated and killed.

Murong Nong

Murong Nong , formally Prince Huanlie of Liaoxi , was a general and imperial prince of the /Xianbei state Later Yan. He was a son of the founding emperor Murong Chui and a brother of Murong Bao . Throughout most of the state's history, he was admired by the people and officials alike for his military and governance abilities, but his inexplicable failures in 398 helped to lead to the downfall of himself, his brother Murong Bao, and the Later Yan state.

Before Later Yan's founding

The first reference to Murong Nong in history was in 369, when Murong Chui, then a Former Yan prince, fled to Former Qin after he came after suspicion of the emperor Murong Wei's mother and the regent Murong Ping; Murong Nong was one of his sons who fled with him. He was mentioned as having told his father in 377 that, in light of the capable prime minister 's death, the Former Qin emperor Fu Jiān's reign appeared to be deteriorating and that Murong Chui should consider reestablishing Yan . Murong Chui laughed off his suggestion at this point but kept it in mind.

Murong Nong would renew his suggestion in 383 after Former Qin had failed in its attempt to conquer and been severely weakened in the defeat at the Battle of Fei River. Murong Chui agreed this time, and after receiving Fu Jiān's permission to go on a mission to try to pacify the northeastern empire, instead plotted rebellion. As part of the plan, as Murong Chui rose south of the Yellow River near Luoyang, Murong Nong and his cousin Murong Kai started a rebellion of their own north of the Yellow River in spring 384. He quickly defeated the highly-regarded Former Qin general Shi Yue , and became a major menace for Former Qin troops, and he was known both for his military strategies and strict discipline.

During Murong Chui's reign

In spring 384, Murong Chui declared the establishingment of Later Yan, and Murong Nong continued to contribute greatly to the campaigns that he would wage the next year against Former Qin remnants and other generals who had maintained semi-independence in light of Former Qin's collapse. Around the new year 386, Murong Nong stamped out all remaining Former Qin resistance in the You and Ping Provinces, including the rebel Yu Yan , and further recovered some commanderies that Goguryeo had seized. Murong Chui made him effective viceroy of You and Ping Provinces, in charge of the old Former Yan capital Longcheng , and he remained in that post for several years, apparently greatly favored by the people of the region. In 386, Murong Chui created him the Prince of Liaoxi.

In 389, believing that there were no longer matters for him to attend to in the You/Ping region, Murong Nong submitted a report to Murong Chui requesting a recall to the capital Zhongshan , stating, in part:

:''I initially advanced my forces here to suppress rebels, and I was ordered to keep these provinces safe. My soldiers have rested for several years, and there are still many bandits in Qing , Xu , Jing , and Yong Provinces. I hope that soon someone will succeed me here, so that I may return and expend all my effort for the empire -- so that I do not have unspent strength while I am alive and regrets when I die.''



Murong Chui, upon receiving the report, summoned Murong Nong to the capital, and had his brother Murong Long the Prince of Gaoyang succeed him at Longcheng. For the next several years, Murong Nong participated in a number of his father's campaigns and was particularly effective in the campaign that destroyed the independent state of and its emperor Zhai Zhao in 392. He also played a major role in Later Yan's destruction of Western Yan in 394, allowing Later Yan to seize modern Shanxi. In 394, Murong Nong attacked Jin's Qing Province, then under the governance of former Later Yan vassal Bilü Hun and had some success against Bilü, but around the new year 395, for reasons unknown, Murong Chui ordered him to return to Zhongshan and abandon the campaign.

During Murong Chui's reign, Murong Nong and Murong Long were the most well-regarded princes. Because of this, Murong Chui's wife Empress Duan Yuanfei once suggested to him that the crown prince Murong Bao lacked abilities to govern, and Murong Chui should choose either Murong Nong or Murong Long instead. Murong Chui, believing Murong Bao to be capable, rejected her suggestion.

Murong Nong's aura of invincibility, however, began to wane in 395 -- albeit in a campaign that he was not the supreme commander of. That year, aggravated by the harassing raids by the former Later Yan vassal Northern Wei's prince , Murong Chui sent Murong Bao to command a 80,000-men army, with Murong Nong and Murong Lin as his assistant commanders, to try to crush Northern Wei. However, after stalemates with Northern Wei near Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, Murong Bao retreated after false reports of Murong Chui's death -- and was, in retreat, crushed by Tuoba Gui at the Battle of Canhe Slope, with loss of nearly the entire army. Murong Nong was, along with his brothers, able to escape death.

In early 396, Murong Chui personally led forces to try to force Northern Wei's submission, and Murong Nong and Murong Long were the forward commanders. They had initial successes against Northern Wei, but as the army passed through Canhe Slope, they mourned in such a great manner that Murong Chui, in shame and anger, grew ill, and the army was forced to retreat. He died soon thereafter and was succeeded by Murong Bao.

During Murong Bao's reign

Murong Bao, although aware of Empress Duan's earlier suggestion to make Murong Nong or Murong Long crown prince , appeared to trust his brothers greatly, and he made Murong Nong the viceroy of Bing Province to guard against a Northern Wei attack. However, Murong Nong immediately made the mistakes of collecting food for his troops -- too much for the local population, then suffering from a famine, to support -- and sending military officers to watch over non- tribes. The people became resolved to revolt, and they sent messengers to Northern Wei, requesting Tuoba Gui to advance on Bing Province. In late fall 396, he arrived at the capital of the province, Jinyang , and when Murong Nong engaged Tuoba Gui in battle, Tuoba Gui defeated him, and he was forced to flee back to Zhongshan, but his wife and children were captured by Northern Wei and he himself was wounded.

Tuoba Gui continued his advance on Zhongshan. Murong Bao gave Murong Nong a small force to command in the defense of Zhongshan, but most of the military matters were entrusted to Murong Lin the Prince of Zhao, who advised Murong Bao not to engage Northern Wei forces, much to the frustration of Murong Nong and Murong Long. In spring 397, after Murong Lin failed in a coup attempt, he fled out of the capital, and Murong Bao, in fear that Murong Lin would seize a relief force commanded by his son the Prince of Qinghe, decided to abandon Zhongshan. Murong Nong's and Murong Long's subordinates tried to persuade each to stay in Zhongshan rather than to follow Murong Bao, but each refused, feeling that loyalty to their brother required them to follow him. They therefore followed Murong Bao and joined Murong Hui's army.

However, Murong Hui was resentful that he was not made crown prince, a position given to his younger brother Murong Ce , and he considered seizing the position by force. Murong Bao, realizing this, tried to transfer some of Murong Hui's army to the commands of Murong Nong and Murong Long, but this only made Murong Hui more resentful, and he acted first against his uncles, sending assassins against them. Murong Long was killed, but Murong Nong survived the attack but was severely wounded , and Murong Hui, who then openly declared a coup, was then defeated and killed.

Murong Bao, who settled in at Longcheng, made Murong Nong his prime minister. At Murong Nong's suggestion, Murong Bao iniitally stopped his thoughts of regaining the lost provinces, but in early 398, against the advice of Murong Nong and Murong Sheng the Prince of Changle, Murong Bao resolved to try to advance south -- but his army was worn out. As soon as Murong Bao left Longcheng, his general Duan Sugu started a rebellion, and the army abandoned Murong Bao, who immediately fled back to Longcheng. Meanwhile, Duan, having forced Murong Long's son Murong Chong the Prince of Gaoyang as leader, sieged Longcheng. Even with secret help from Lan Han the Prince of Dunqiu -- Murong Chui's uncle -- however, Duan was initially unsuccessful, until Murong Nong inexplicably, in fear of his life, surrendered to him. This greatly destroyed the morale of Longcheng's defense forces, as everyone relied on Murong Nong's leadership, and Longcheng fell to Duan. Duan imprisoned Murong Nong, but his strategist Ajiao Luo suggested that Murong Nong might be a better puppet than Murong Chong. Upon hearing this news, however, Murong Chong's attendants Zong Rang and Chuli Jian assassinated Ajiao and Murong Nong.

Murong Hui (Later Yan)

Murong Hui was a general and imperial prince of the /Xianbei state Later Yan, who served under his grandfather Murong Chui and father Murong Bao . During his father's reign, angry that he was not created crown prince, he tried to seize that position by force, but after his failure was killed.

Murong Hui was born to Murong Bao and a concubine described as of lowly birth while Murong Bao was a low-level Former Qin official, after Murong Chui, a Former Yan prince, had sought refuge with Former Qin's emperor Fu Jiān in 369 after a dispute with Former Yan's and regent Murong Ping, and after Former Qin had destroyed Former Yan in 370. He was therefore probably born in the Former Qin capital Chang'an, where Murong Bao served.

When Murong Chui rebelled against Former Qin in 384 and established Later Yan, Murong Hui was in Chang'an, then still under Former Qin control. After the last Former Yan emperor Murong Wei, then a Former Qin general, tried to rebel within the city around the new year 385, Fu Jiān ordered the Xianbei in the city killed, but Murong Hui, along with his uncle Murong Rou and brother Murong Sheng, were not killed, apparently because Murong Rou had been adopted by the eunuch Song Ya . Soon thereafter, though, Murong Rou, Murong Sheng, and Murong Hui fled Chang'an and sought refuge with Murong Wei's brother and the leader of the nascent Western Yan state, Murong Chong.

Western Yan eventually captured Chang'an, but Murong Chong was killed in a coup, and the Xianbei people of the state abandoned Chang'an and began heading east back to their homeland. After a series of coups in 386, Murong Yong became emperor, and under his leadership Western Yan settled in at Zhangzi . In winter 386, Murong Sheng saw that they were being suspected by Murong Yong on account of their being descendants of Murong Chui, and therefore persuaded Murong Rou and Murong Hui to flee to Later Yan. It took them a year to arrive in the Later Yan capital Zhongshan , and upon arrival in the capital, Murong Hui was created the Duke of Qinghe.

Murong Chui greatly favored Murong Hui's abilities, and whenever Murong Bao, then Murong Chui's crown prince, would accompany Murong Chui on campaigns, Murong Chui put Murong Hui in charge of the crown prince's household, and ordered that he accorded the same respect as the crown prince during those times. In 395, after Murong Bao had suffered a devastating defeat at the hands of Later Yan's former vassal, Northern Wei's prince , in preparation of another attack against Northern Wei, Murong Chui recalled Murong Hui's uncle Murong Long, the viceroy at the old Former Yan capital Longcheng , to the capital with his troops, and he made Murong Hui viceroy at Longcheng. He grew extremely ill in early 396, however, and died during the campaign and was succeeded by Murong Bao.

Before Murong Chui died, he urged Murong Bao to make Murong Hui crown prince. However, Murong Bao favored his young son Murong Ce and did not consider Murong Hui. Murong Sheng, who was slightly older than Murong Hui, also did not want to see Murong Hui as crown prince, and therefore persuaded Murong Bao to create Murong Ce crown prince. Murong Hui was only promoted to Prince of Qinghe, and he resented this greatly.

Later in 396, Northern Wei launched a major attack on Later Yan, immediately seizing most of the central and western provinces of the empire, and putting Zhongshan under siege. Murong Hui mobilized his troops under guise of heading for his father's aid, but did not actually have the desire to do so, and so advanced slowly only after the urging of the general Yu Chong . As he reached Zhongshan's vicinity, his father abandoned Zhongshan and joined his army. Murong Bao immediately saw that Murong Hui was still resentful, and tried to transfer the command of the army to his own brothers Murong Long and Murong Nong, but this only angered Murong Hui more. Seeing his uncles as his threats, he sent assassins against them, killing Murong Long but only wounding Murong Nong, and then falsely accused Murong Long and Murong Nong of treason. Murong Bao initially pretended to believe him, and then tried to have him assassinated but failed. Murong Hui then rose in open rebellion, demanding the position of crown prince, and as Murong Bao had then reached Longcheng first, Murong Hui tried to put Longcheng under siege. The general , however, led a surprise attack against him, and his troops collapsed. He fled back to Zhongshan, then under the control of his cousin Murong Xiang the Duke of Kaifeng, but Murong Xiang executed him. Murong Bao executed his mother and sons as well.

Ran Min

Ran Min , also known as Shi Min , honored by Former Yan as Daowu of Wei , courtesy name Yongzeng , nickname Jinu , was a Han Chinese military leader during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms in China and the only emperor of the short-lived state Ran Wei . Ran is an uncommon Chinese family name. He was noted for provoking massacres of people due to racial tension under Later Zhao.

Family background

Ran Min's father Ran Liang , who later changed his name to Ran Zhan , was ethnically and from Wei Commandery and was a descendant of an aristocratic family, but one who must have, in the serious famines circa 310, joined a group of refugees led by Chen Wu . When Later Zhao's founder Shi Le defeated Chen in 311, he captured the 11-year-old Ran Zhan as well, and for reasons unknown, he had his nephew Shi Hu adopt Ran Zhan as his son and change his name accordingly to Shi Zhan. Ran Min's mother was named Wang . It is not known when he was born, but he would have been known as Shi Min.

A Shi Zhan was mentioned to have died in battle when Shi Hu was defeated by Han Zhao's emperor Liu Yao in 328, but it is not clear whether this Shi Zhan was Shi Min's father.

During Shi Hu's reign

As Shi Min grew in age, Shi Hu became impressed at him for his bravery in battle and battlefield tactics, and he treated Shi Min as a biological grandson. The first mention in history of him as a general was in 338, when Shi Hu unsuccessfully tried to destroy the rival state Former Yan but saw his army collapse after sieging the Former Yan capital Jicheng for about 20 days but failing to capture it. The only army group that remained intact was the one commanded by Shi Min.

During the remainder of Shi Hu's reign, Shi Min was often referred to as a general he turned to. For example, in 339, when the general Yu Liang considered launching a major campaign against Later Zhao, Shi Hu chose to react, and he had his general Kui An command five generals, one of whom was Shi Min, to attack Jin's northern regions. Shi Min was successful in his task, and the five generals together inflicted heavy damages, thwarting Yu's plans. For his accomplishments, Shi Min was created the Duke of Wuxing.

During the confusion after Shi Hu's death

After Shi Hu's death in 349, his youngest son and crown prince Shi Shi became emperor, but the government was controlled by Shi Shi's mother and the official Zhang Chai . Shi Shi's older brother Shi Zun the Prince of Pengcheng was unhappy about the situation, and a number of generals who were unimpressed with Empress Dowager Liu and Zhang, including Shi Min, suggested that he march to the capital and overthrow them. Shi Zun did so -- and also promised to create Shi Min crown prince if they were victorious. In summer 349, Shi Zun defeated Shi Shi's forces and deposed and killed him, along with Empress Dowager Liu and Zhang Chai. Shi Zun claimed the imperial title. However, he did not create Shi Min crown prince as promised, but rather created another nephew, Shi Yan , crown prince. Further, while he gave Shi Min important posts, he did not allow him to have control of the government, as Shi Min wished. Shi Min became disgruntled.

In winter 349, in fear of Shi Min, Shi Zun summoned a meeting of the princes before his mother, , announcing that he would execute Shi Min. Empress Dowager Zheng opposed, reasoning that Shi Min's contributions during the coup against Shi Shi had to be remembered. Shi Zun hesitated, and meanwhile, Shi Jian, one of the princes attending the meeting, quickly reported the news to Shi Min, who acted quickly and surrounded the palace, capturing and executing Shi Zun, Empress Dowager Zheng, Shi Zun's wife , Shi Yan, and several key officials loyal to Shi Zun. He made Shi Jian emperor, but he and Li Nong became in control of the government.

Shi Jian could not endure Shi Min's hold on power, and he sent his brother Shi Bao the Prince of Leping and the generals Li Song and Zhang Cai against Shi Min, but after they were defeated, Shi Jian pretended as if they acted independently and executed them all. Another brother of his, Shi Zhi the Prince of Xinxing, then rose in the old capital Xiangguo , in alliance with the Qiang chieftain Yao Yizhong and the chieftain against Shi Min and Li Nong. Shi Jian tried to then have the general Sun Fudu , a fellow Jie, attack Shi Min, but Shi Min quickly defeated him, and Shi Jian, trying to absolve himself, then ordered Shi Min to execute Sun. Shi Min, however, began to realize that Shi Jian was behind Sun's attack, and he decided that he needed to disarm the Jie, who knew that he was not Jie but ethnically Han. He ordered that all non-Han not be allowed to carry arms, and most fled Yecheng in light of the command. Shi Min put Shi Jian under house arrest with no communication with the outside. As the non-Han continued to flee Yecheng, Shi Min saw that, in particular, the Xiongnu and the Jie would never support him, so he issued an order that if a Han killed a non-Han and presented the head, he would be rewarded. Some 200,000 died in the massacre -- including some Han who had higher nose structure or thicker beard, both considered signs of non-Hanness.

In 350, under duress from Shi Min, Shi Jian changed the name of the state from Zhao to Wei and the family name of the imperial clan from Shi to Li . Many key officials fled to Shi Zhi. Local generals throughout the empire effectively became independent, waiting for the war to resolve itself. As Shi Min was engaging his troops against Shi Zhi's, Shi Jian made one final attempt against him -- ordering the general Zhang Shen to, after Shi Min left the capital, attack it. However, Shi Jian's eunuchs reported this to Shi Min and Li Nong, and they quickly returned to Yecheng and executed Shi Jian, along with 28 grandsons of Shi Hu and the rest of the Shi clan. Shi Min, restoring his father's original family name of Ran , then took the throne as the emperor of a new state, Wei .

As emperor of Ran Wei

Ran Min honored his mother Lady Wang as empress dowager. He created his wife empress, and his oldest son Ran Zhi crown prince. His other sons were created princes, as was his ally Li Nong, whose sons were created dukes. He sent out a general pardon, hoping to have the generals who had effectively become independent powers abide by his edicts, but few accepted, even though the Han generals mostly did not outwardly defy him either. He soon, for reasons unknown, killed Li. He sent a letter to Emperor Mu of Jin's court with mixed messages -- appearing to invite Jin to send forces north and agreeing to submit, but the letter could also be read as a defiant challenge. Jin did not react, although it began to also seek allegiance of the generals in the southern provinces of Later Zhao's former territory.

Ran Min's brief reign was characterized by rash decisions and massive executions. He would often react violently to advisors who suggested ideas different from his -- including killing them -- and then regret those violent reactions after he realized that he was wrong.

In spring 351, Ran Min sieged Shi Zhi's capital Xiangguo. Shi Zhi sought aid from Former Yan's prince Murong Jun and was able to deal Ran a major defeat. At this time, the Xiongnu soldiers in Yecheng rebelled, captured his son Ran Yin, and surrendered to Shi Zhi, who executed Ran Yin. Ran Min was thought to be dead, but when he appeared in Yecheng, the city was calmed. Shi Zhi had his general Liu Xian siege Yecheng, but Ran Min defeated Liu in battle and awed him so much that Liu agreed that once he returned to Xiangguo, he would kill Shi Zhi and surrender. He did so and sent Shi Zhi's head to Ran Min, and Ran Min had Shi Zhi's head be burned on a busy street in Yecheng. Later Zhao was at its final end.

However, wars continued. Liu Xian, after briefly submitting to Ran Min, proclaimed himself emperor. The western provinces were taken over by Fu Jiàn, who established Former Qin. The southern provinces larely switched their allegiance to Jin. Meanwhile, Former Yan, which had already captured You Province and moved its capital to Jicheng , continued to advance south. Ran Min, who captured Xiangguo in early 352 and executed Liu Xian, decided to head north to face the Former Yan army, against advice of several officials who felt that his army needed a rest. The Former Yan general Murong Ke, Murong Jun's brother, pretended to lose several skirmishes and then retreat, tricking Ran Min and his infantry into the open field, and then used his cavalry to surround Ran Min's, inflicting great losses. Ran Min's horse suddenly died, and he fell off and was captured. Former Yan forces delivered him to Murong Jun, and he insulted Murong Jun. Murong Jun had him whipped 300 times and then executed, although was soon fearful that his spirit was causing a draught, and therefore honored him with the posthumous name Daowu. Ran Min's wife Empress Dong and her son Ran Zhi would hold out for several more months, but eventually surrendered later that year, ending Ran Wei's brief existence.

Ran Wei

Personal information

* Father
** Ran Zhan , later adopted by Shi Hu and name changed to Shi Zhan , likely died 327 in battle against Han Zhao, posthumously honored as Emperor Gao
* Mother
** Empress Dowager Wang
* Wife
**
* Children
** Ran Zhi , the Crown Prince , later created the Marquess of Haibin by Former Yan
** Ran Yin
** Ran Ming
** Ran Yu
** Ran Cao

Shi Jian

Shi Jian was briefly an emperor of the / state Later Zhao. He was the third of four short-lived emperors after the death of his father Shi Hu . He is sometimes referred to by his title prior to becoming emperor, Prince of Yiyang . Arguably, it was his machinations with his powerful adoptive nephew Shi Min against his brother Shi Zun that finally led to Later Zhao's downfall.

Not much is known about Shi Jian prior to his father's death -- including who his mother was. He was created the Prince of Dai in 333 after his father seized power from the founding emperor Shi Le's son Shi Hong in a coup, and after Shi Hu claimed the title "Heavenly Prince" in 337, he carried the title Duke of Yiyang. He was repromoted to prince after his father claimed imperial title in early 349. In 342, he was mentioned as one of the dukes whose guard corps was reduced by his brother Shi Xuan the crown prince, whose target was however actually Shi Tao the Duke of Qin. In 345, he was mentioned as the commander of the Guanzhong region, and he imposed heavy taxes and labor burdens; further, he forced officials with long hair to pull out their hair to be made into hat decorations. After his secretary submitted the hair to Shi Hu, Shi Hu recalled him and replaced him with his brother Shi Bao the Duke of Leping.

In 349, after Shi Hu's death and succession by his youngest son, Shi Shi, the regent, Shi Shi's mother , tried to appease both Shi Jian and Shi Zun the Prince of Pengcheng by naming them to high posts. However, Shi Zun was not placated, and he attacked the capital Yecheng and seized the throne, killing Shi Shi and Empress Dowager Liu. During Shi Zun's brief administration, Shi Jian was an important member of the administration. He was one of the princes summoned to a meeting called by Shi Zun before his mother in which Shi Zun announced that he was going to execute their powerful adoptive nephew, Shi Min the Duke of Wuxing. Shi Jian, who had perhaps already been in conspiracy with Shi Min, quickly sent Shi Min the news, and Shi Min surrounded the palace with his troops, capturing and killing Shi Zun. He made Shi Jian the emperor. However, actual power were in Shi Min's and his ally Li Nong 's hands.

Shi Jian could not endure Shi Min's hold on power, and he sent his brother Shi Bao and the generals Li Song and Zhang Cai against Shi Min, but after they were defeated, Shi Jian pretended as if they acted independently and executed them all. Another brother of his, Shi Zhi the Prince of Xinxing, then rose in the old capital Xiangguo , in alliance with the Qiang chieftain Yao Yizhong and the chieftain against Shi Min and Li Nong. Shi Jian tried to then have the general Sun Fudu , a fellow Jie, attack Shi Min, but Shi Min quickly defeated him, and Shi Jian, trying to absolve himself, then ordered Shi Min to execute Sun. Shi Min, however, began to realize that Shi Jian was behind Sun's attack, and he decided that he needed to disarm the Jie, who knew that he was not Jie but ethnically . He ordered that all non-Han not be allowed to carry arms, and most fled Yecheng in light of the command. Shi Min put Shi Jian under house arrest with no communication with the outside. As the non-Han continued to flee Yecheng, Shi Min saw that, in particular, the Xiongnu and the Jie would never support him, so he issued an order that if a Han killed a non-Han and presented the head, he would be rewarded. Some 200,000 died in the massacre -- including some Han who had higher nose structure or thicker beard, both considered signs of non-Hanness.

In 350, under duress from Shi Min, Shi Jian changed the name of the state from Zhao to Wei and the family name of the imperial clan from Shi to Li . Many key officials fled to Shi Zhi. Local generals throughout the empire effectively became independent, waiting for the war to resolve itself. As Shi Min was engaging his troops against Shi Zhi's, Shi Jian made one final attempt against him -- ordering the general Zhang Shen to, after Shi Min left the capital, attack it. However, Shi Jian's eunuchs reported this to Shi Min and Li Nong, and they quickly returned to Yecheng and executed Shi Jian, along with 28 grandsons of Shi Hu and the rest of the Shi clan. Shi Min, restoring his father's original family name of Ran , then took the throne as the emperor of a new state, Wei . Effectively, Later Zhao was over, although Shi Zhi would hold out at Xiangguo until 351, when he would be killed by his general Liu Xian , finally ending Later Zhao's last hope.

Era name

* ''Qinglong'' 350

Shi Zhi

Shi Zhi was briefly, for about one year, an emperor of the / state Later Zhao. He was the last of four short-lived emperors after the death of his father Shi Hu , and Later Zhao's final emperor. He is sometimes referred to by his title prior to becoming emperor, Prince of Xinxing .

Virtually nothing is known about Shi Zhi's career during his father Shi Hu's reign, including when he was created prince, who his mother was, or what role, if any, he had in his father's government. It is known that, by his father's death, he was the Prince of Xinxing. By 349, when his brother Shi Jian the emperor was effectively the puppet of their powerful, ethnically adoptive nephew Shi Min in the capital , Shi Zhi rose at his defense post at the old capital Xiangguo , in alliance with the Qiang chief Yao Yizhong and the chief . They had some initial success in getting the non-Han people of the empire to join them against Shi Min, but soon the Han coalesced around Shi Min, who changed his family name back to his father's original Ran . In early 350, Ran Min killed Shi Jian and established his own state named Wei . Shi Zhi then declared himself emperor, and he engaged in indecisive battles against Ran Min. Meanwhile, local generals throughout the empire were waiting to watch who would be the victor of the war, while neighboring states and Former Yan began to encroach on Later Zhao territory. Former Yan, in particular, seized modern Beijing, Tianjin, and northern Hebei and continued to march south.

In late 350 and early 351, Pu Hong's son Fu Jiàn seized the western part of Later Zhao, declaring himself "Heavenly Prince" and establishing Former Qin. Shi Zhi, occupied with fighting Ran Min, could do nothing. Indeed, under siege in Xiangguo by Ran, he demoted his own title from emperor to Prince of Zhao and sought help from Former Yan's prince Murong Jun against Ran, who initially agreed and allied with him to defeat Ran temporarily. Shi Zhi then sent his general Liu Xian to attack Ran in Yecheng, but Liu not only was defeated by Ran but was so awed by and fearful of him that he agreed to kill Shi Zhi for him. Once Liu returned to Xiangguo, then, he arrested and killed Shi Zhi and his high level officials, presenting Shi Zhi's head to Ran. Ran burned the head publicly on a busy street in Yecheng. Later Zhao was at its end.

Era name

* ''Yongning'' 350-351

Shi Zun

Shi Zun was briefly an emperor of the / state Later Zhao. He was the second of four short-lived emperors after the death of his father Shi Hu . He is sometimes referred to by his title prior to becoming emperor, Prince of Pengcheng .

Before and during Shi Hu's reign

Shi Zun was a son of Shi Hu and his favorite, , who also bore Shi Hu his oldest son, Shi Sui . After Shi Hu seized power after the death of his uncle and Later Zhao's founding emperor Shi Le in 333, he forced the new emperor Shi Hong to create him the Prince of Wei and all of his sons princes -- and it was this time that Shi Zun was created the Prince of Qi. Shi Hu would seize the throne in 334, and after he declared himself "Heavenly Prince" in 337, he changed the ranks of all of his sons except Shi Sui to dukes, and so Shi Zun became the Duke of Pengcheng. His mother Princess Zheng was created empress, while his older brother Shi Sui was created crown prince. Later in 337, however, Shi Sui would be executed for plotting their father's death, and Empress Zheng was also demoted in rank to Duchess Dowager of Donghai.

During most of Shi Hu's reign, Shi Zun apparently served as a general. In 348, after Shi Hu executed his second crown prince, Shi Xuan for having assassinated his brother Shi Tao , he considered whom to make crown prince. The official Zhang Ju recommended two of Shi Hu's son -- Shi Zun, whom he praised for having literary abilities and virtues, and Shi Bin the Duke of Yan, whom he praised for knowing military strategies. However, based on Zhang Chai 's recommendation, Shi Hu created his youngest son Shi Shi crown prince instead.

Coup against Shi Shi

As Shi Hu grew ill in 349, he intended for Shi Zun and Shi Bin to serve as co-regents for Shi Shi, disappointing Shi Shi's mother and Zhang Chai. Empress Liu and Zhang forged edicts sending Shi Zun to Guanzhong and executing Shi Bin. After Shi Shi took the throne shortly after Shi Hu's death, Shi Zun was offered honored titles with intent to appease him, but he was not satisfied. He, by now with the title Prince of Pengcheng , allied with the generals Yao Yizhong , , Liu Ning , Shi Min the Duke of Wuxing, and Wang Luan , none of whom was particularly happy about Shi Shi's selection, marched to the capital Yecheng , capturing it easily and killing Zhang Chai. Shi Zun then forged an edict from Empress Dowager Liu deposing Shi Shi and granting himself the throne, and then executed Shi Shi and Empress Dowager Liu. He honored his mother, the former Empress Zheng, as empress dowager, while creating his wife empress. Further, he created Shi Bin's son Shi Yan crown prince, disappointing Shi Min, his adoptive nephew, whom he had promised to make crown prince.

Reign

Despite his disappointment, Shi Min subsequently led Shi Zun's forces in defeating and killing Shi Zun's brother Shi Chong the Prince of Pei, who had declared Shi Zun a renegade for having murdered the rightful heir Shi Shi. After his accomplishments in defeating Shi Shi and Shi Chong's forces, Shi Min wanted greater power in the government, but Shi Zun denied his wishes. During the next few months, Later Zhao local generals, while still outwardly obeying Shi Zun's authority, began to gradually peel away from the central government, expecting further trouble to come at the center. Also sensing that Later Zhao was crumbling, neighboring states Former Yan and planned invasions against it, although the main invasions would not come until after Shi Zun's reign.

That trouble came as Shi Zun, realizing Shi Min's anger toward him, summoned a gathering of princes before Empress Dowager Zheng, in which he announced he was going to execute Shi Min. However, Empress Dowager Zheng opposed this action, and Shi Zun hesitated. Meanwhile, one of the princes, Shi Jian the Prince of Yiyang, informed Shi Min of Shi Zun's plan, and Shi Min quickly led his troops in arresting Shi Zun. Shi Min then executed him and made Shi Jian emperor.

Personal information

* Father
** Shi Hu
* Mother
** Empress Zheng Yingtao
* Wife
**

Zhang Bin

Zhang Bin , courtesy name Mengsun , formally Marquess Jing of Puyang , was a key strategist for Shi Le, the founder of the / state Later Zhao.

Biography

Zhang Bin's father Zhang Yao was a commandery governing during the early Jin Dynasty . Zhang Bin was studious in his youth, and once, comparing himself to the great strategist Zhang Liang, said, "I believe my intelligence and judgment to be no less than Zhang Liang's, but I have not met ." He served on the staff of a Jin prince, but was not trusted, and so he resigned his post.

Later, after various agrarian rebellions started against Jin rule during the late reign of Emperor Hui of Jin, Zhang happened to meet Shi, and believed that Shi was the most capable general he met, and so he joined Shi's army. Initially, Shi did not consider him important, but after they became more acquainted, Shi began to value his advice more and more. In 311, when Shi, who was then a Han Zhao general who was winning many battles but failing to hold territory, considered capturing the region between the Yangtze River and the , it was Zhang who advised him against the plan, apparently reasoning that Shi's army was suitable for mobility on the plains, not the river- and lake-filled region near the Yangtze. In 312, when Shi's army was facing a food shortage and worried about an attack from the Jin general , Shi's other main strategist Diao Ying suggested offering to declare loyalty for Jin, which Zhang told Shi would be impossible, given the great enmity that Jin forces had for Shi after his participation in capturing and pillaging Sima Yue's funeral procession and then the capital Luoyang in 311 -- and that if he tried to retreat, Jin forces would not dare to engage him. Agreeing with Zhang, Shi retreated north without being attacked by Jin forces, and he made Zhang his right secretary -- but referred to him as Right Marquess , a title that he would use to address Zhang for the rest of Zhang's life, in lieu of name, thus showing greater respect for Zhang than for other subordinates.

In summer 312, it was at Zhang's suggestion that Shi finally occupied Xiangguo and held it permanently as his headquarters. For the next few years, while he was ostensibly a Han Zhao general, with Zhang's assistance he expanded the territory he held to most of the area north of the Yellow River. By 316, Shi had created Zhang the Marquess of Puyang. In 319, after Shi declared independence from Han Zhao and its new emperor Liu Yao, thus creating Later Zhao, Zhang served as the prime minister. Zhang died in early 323, and upon his death, Shi mourned him greatly and exclaimed, "Is it that heaven does not wish me to complete great things? Why was the Right Marquess robbed from me?" After Cheng Xia , a capable administrator but not the strategist that Zhang was , succeeded Zhang, Shi often sighed, "the Right Marquess abandoned me and let me work with this man. Was it not cruel for him to do so?"

Tufa Wugu

Tufa Wugu , formally Prince Wu of Wuwei , was the founding prince of the /Xianbei state Southern Liang. He was initially a vassal of Later Liang's emperor Lü Guang, but seeing how Lü Guang was misruling his people, declared independence in 397. He ruled for only two years before he died from injuries suffered in a horse-riding accident.

Prior to independence

Tufa Wugu's father Tufa Sifujian was a great-grandnephew of the early Jin Dynasty Xianbei general Tufa Shujineng , who had been a menace to Jin forces during the reign of . Tufa Sifujian became tribal chief in 356 and was a Former Qin vassal, but it was not known when he died and was succeeded by Tufa Wugu.

Tufa Wugu himself was described as brave and ambitious, and he considered ways to take over Liang Province . His general Fen Tuo advised him that he had to be diligent, encourage agriculture, and rule efficiently and fairly. He strived to follow Fen's suggestions, and soon became known for his abilities. In 394, Lü Guang, the prince of Later Liang, sent messengers to commission Tufa Wugu as a general, and Tufa Wugu considered whether to accept it. Most of his advisors wanted to reject the commission, since they felt it humiliating to be Later Liang's vassal, but the strategist Shizhen Ruoliu pointed out that Tufa Wugu was not yet in shape to oppose Lü Guang, and that he should submit to make Lü Guang arrogant. Tufa Wugu agreed, and accepted the Later Liang posts.

In 395, Tufa Wugu attacked a number of unsubmissive tribes around his, including Yifu and Zhejue , forcing them to submit. He built Lianchuan Castle to serve as headquarters. Also in 395, Lü Guang created him the Duke of Guangwu.

In 396, when Lü Guang claimed the imperial title of "Heavenly Prince" , he tried to confer some more honorific titles on Tufa Wugu, but this time Tufa Wugu refused, stating to Lü Guang's ambassador:

:''Heavenly Prince Lü's sons are all corrupt and immoral. His nephews are particularly violent and cruel. People both near and far are angry and ready to rebel. How can I go against the people and accept these unjust titles? I am about to claim a regal title myself.''

Tufa Wugu therefore rejected the titles, although he kept the musicians and artisans that Lü Guang sent to him as part of the title bestowment.

In 397, after Lü Guang had suffered a loss on the battlefield against Western Qin's prince Qifu Gangui, Tufa Wugu declared himself the Prince of Xiping and changed era name, signifying a declaration of independence for Southern Liang. He then captured Later Liang's city Jincheng , which Later Liang had only captured from Western Qin earlier that year. Lü Guang sent his general Dou Gou to attack Southern Liang, but was defeated by Tufa Wugu.

Reign

The major aim for Tufa Wugu was to weaken Later Liang and eventually capture its capital Guzang , and later in 397, when Later Liang's rebel general, the prophet Guo Nen , under attack by Lü Guang's son Lü Zuan, sought help from him, he sent his brother Tufa Lilugu to relieve Guo, although Guo later submitted to Western Qin. In 398, two other Later Liang rebel generals Yang Gui and Wang Qiji submitted to Tufa Wugu, and later that year Tufa Wugu defeated the powerful Qiang chief Liang Ji , and after his victory, the Qiang and Xiongnu tribes south of the Hongchi Mountain all submitted to him. Late in the year, he changed his title from Prince of Xiping to Prince of Wuwei, perhaps signifying his eventual design on Guzang.

In spring 399, Tufa Wugu moved his capital to Ledu . It was described that, around this time, he was very effective at judging talent, and regardless of whether his subordinates were or of other ethnicities, he put them all in the right positions in accordance with their talent. He also sought advice on whom to attack first, among Western Qin, Later Liang, or Northern Liang. Pursuant to suggestions by Yang Tong , who pointed out that Lü Guang was incompetent and that his sons were distrusting of each other, and that Tufa Wugu should let his troops harass Later Liang's borders and eventually conquer it. When Lü Guang's sons Lü Shao and Lü Zuan attacked Northern Liang later that year, Tufa Wugu went to the Northern Liang prince Duan Ye's aid, helping to stave off the Later Liang attack.

Later that year, Tufa Wugu fell off his horse while drunk, and he suffered a severe chest injury. He remarked, while grinning, "I am making Lü Guang and his sons happy!" As his conditions worsened, he ordered that someone who is old should succeed him, and so his nobles supported his brother Tufa Lilugu as the new prince .

Era name

* ''Taichu'' 397-400

Personal information

* Father
** Tufa Sifujian , Xianbei tribal chief
* Children
** Tufa Fudan
** Tufa Fanni

Li Gao

Li Gao , courtesy name Xuansheng , nickname Changsheng , formally Prince Wuzhao of Liang , was the founding duke of the state Western Liáng. He was initially a Northern Liang official, but in 400, he seceded from Northern Liang's prince Duan Ye's rule and established his own independent state. His state only lasted for 21 years, but as his descendants would remain key officials and nobles throughout Northern Wei, Western Wei, Northern Zhou, and Sui Dynasty, and as one of them, , would found the Tang Dynasty in 618. After the founding of the Tang Dynasty, he was posthumously honored as Emperor Xingsheng .

Prior to Western Liang's establishment

Li Gao was born in 351, and was a posthumous child of his father Li Chang , who traced his ancestry to the Han Dynasty general Li Guang. After Li Chang's death, Li Gao's mother married a man named Song, and she bore him at least one son, Song Yao . In Li Gao's youth, he was known to be studious, rational, and open-minded. When he grew older, he also studied the military strategies of Sunzi and Wu Qi. He had, for a time, lived in the same house with his half-brother Song Yao and Guo Nen , a minister of Later Liang's founding emperor Lü Guang known for his magical and prophetic abilities. Guo once told Song, "Your place will be among the most honored of all subjects, but Mr. Li will one day found an independent state. This will happen when a mare bears a pony with a white forehead."

After Lü Guang's official Duan Ye, with support from the generals Juqu Nancheng and Juqu Mengxun, broke away from Later Liang and established Northern Liang in 397, Li Gao became a county magistrate under Duan Ye's governor of Dunhuang Commandery , Meng Min . When Meng died in 400, the officials of Dunhuang Commandery, because Li Gao was popular with the people, asked him to take over. Initially, Li Gao was hesitant, but Song advised him to accept, stating to him that a pony with a white forehead had just recently been born. Li Gao therefore accepted and requested confirmation from Duan Ye, and Duan Ye agreed.

However, Duan Ye's official Suo Si , a friend of Li Gao's, warned Duan Ye of Li Gao's ambitions and advised Duan Ye not to allow Li Gao to remain in control of Dunhuang. Duan Ye therefore sent Suo Si to take over Li Gao's post. Li Gao, in fear, initially was going to receive Suo and turn over authorities to him. At the urging of Song and Zhang Miao , however, Li Gao first sent messengers to flatter Suo, and instead made a surprise against Suo, defeating him and forcing him to flee back to the Northern Liang capital Zhangye . Li Gao, angry at what he saw as Suo's betrayal, then sent messengers to Duan Ye demanding that he execute Suo. Juqu Nancheng, who also disliked Suo, advised Duan Ye to execute Suo to pacify Li, and Duan Ye did so.

Later in 400, Li Gao's subordinate Tang Yao declared a general secession by the six commanderies around Dunhuang and offered the rulership to Li Gao. Li Gao accepted and took the title of Duke of Liang, thus establishing Western Liang.

Early reign

Li Gao set his capital at Dunhuang. In 401, the important Northern Liang city Jiuquan defected to him, and particularly in light of Later Qin's attacks on Later Liang that year, this caused Juqu Mengxun to consider surrendering his state to Later Qin, although Juqu Mengxun later decided against it and continued his state's existence. In light of Later Qin's advances, however, Li Gao nominally submitted to Later Qin as a vassal.

In 404, Li Gao's heir apparent Li Tan died, and he created Li Tan's younger brother Li Xin as the new heir apparent.

In 405, Li Gao claimed additional honorific titles, and at the same time, while not renouncing Later Qin, also sent messengers to , requesting to be a vassal. He also moved his capital from Dunhuang to Jiuquan, closer to the Northern Liang capital Zhangye, to put additional pressure on Northern Liang. He also wrote a letter to all of his sons, which is still extant, encouraging them to be open-minded and think logically, and be mild in temperament.

In 406, Li Gao entered into a peace agreement with Southern Liang's prince Tufa Rutan, with an implicit understanding of an alliance against Northern Liang, but no actual joint military action was ever taken. Later that year, Juqu Mengxun made an attack on Jiuquan, and Li Gao suffered a defeat to Juqu Mengxun near Jiuquan and was forced to return to the city to defend it against a siege, but Juqu Mengxun, not having enough strength to siege it, withdrew.

Late reign

In 408, not having received response from Jin when he sent messengers in 405, Li Gao sent another messenger with his petition to the Jin capital Jiankang .

In 410, Juqu Mengxun attacked Western Liang again and defeated Li Gao's heir apparent Li Xin in battle, capturing the general Zhu Yuanhu . Li Gao ransomed Zhu with silver and gold, and Juqu Mengxun returned Zhu and made peace with Li Gao.

In 411, Juqu Mengxun, despite the prior peace agreement, made a surprise attack on Western Liang. Li Gao guarded his capital and refused to engage Juqu Mengxun, who was then forced to withdraw when his army ran out of food supply. Li Gao then sent Li Xin to attack the Northern Liang troops in retreat, and Li Xin had a major victory over Juqu Mengxun, capturing his general Juqu Bainian .

In 416, Li Gao's subordinate Suo Chengming suggested that he attack Northern Liang. Li Gao summoned Suo and explained to him that he had insufficient strength to do so -- and that Suo, if he hactually had usable plans, should offer them rather than simply suggesting an attack. In fear and shame, Suo withdrew from his presence.

In 417, Li Gao grew ill, and he entrusted Li Xin to his brother Song Yao, stating, "After I die, the heir apparent is your son. Please discipline him accordingly." He then died, and Li Xin succeeded him as duke. Although Li Gao only claimed a ducal title, he was posthumously honored as a prince.

Era names

* ''Gengzi'' 400-405
* ''Jianchu'' 406-417

Personal information

* Father
** Li Chang , posthumously honored as Duke Jian
* Wife?/Major Concubine?
** , mother of Li Xin
* Children
** Li Tan , the Heir Apparent
** Li Xin , the Heir Apparent , later duke
** Li Rang , Marquess Mu of Xinxiang
** Li Xun , later ruler
** Li Fan
** Li Yu
** Li Hong
** Li Tiao
** Li Liang
** , wife of Juqu Mujian, prince of Northern Liang

Lu Long

Lü Long , courtesy name Yongji , was the last emperor of the / state Later Liang. He was the nephew of the founding emperor Lü Guang , and he took the throne after his brother Lü Chao assassinated the emperor Lü Zuan in 401 and offered the throne to him. During his reign, Later Liang was under constant attacks by Northern Liang and Southern Liang and reduced largely to its capital Guzang . In 403, Lü Long decided to end the state by surrendering Guzang to Later Qin's emperor Yao Xing. He became a Later Qin official, but after aligning himself with Yao Xing's son Yao Bi , who made unsuccessful attempts to seize the crown prince position from Yao Hong, was executed by Yao Hong after Yao Xing's death in 416.

Early life

Not much is known about Lü Long's early life, and his birthdate is not known, and virtually nothing is known about his father Lü Bao. He was described as handsome and skilled at horsemanship and archery. Late in the reign of his uncle Lü Guang he served as a general, but he did not have the same prominence that his younger brother Lü Chao had.

In 401, Lü Chao assassinated Lü Guang's son Lü Zuan and killed Lü Zuan's brother Lü Wei the Duke of Longxi, and then offered the throne to Lü Long. Initially, Lü Long was hesitant to accept, but Lü Chao compared this to riding a dragon up to heaven and not being able to get off, and Lü Long accepted, using the title "Heavenly Prince" , roughly equivalent to emperor. He honored his mother Lady Wei as empress dowager, and created his wife as empress. He created Lü Chao the Duke of Anding and entrusted most governmental and military affairs to him.

Reign

Lü Long, however, instead of correcting Lü Zuan's rule , continued the violence by slaughtering many strong clans within his state for the purpose of showing his authority, and the people were further alienated. After hearing this, in summer 401, the Later Qin emperor Yao Xing sent his uncle Yao Shuode to launch a major attack on Later Liang. The Later Qin army quickly reached Guzang and put it under siege. Many of the non-natives in Guzang planned a rebellion to give the city to Later Qin, but were discovered, and Lü Long slaughtered them, but with Yao Shuode's pressure, Lü Chao suggested nominal submission to Later Qin, which Lü Long agreed with, sending his nephews and some 50 clans to the Later Qin capital Chang'an as hostages to guarantee his faithfulness. Per Yao Shuode's recommendation, Yao Xing created him the Duke of Jiankang, although Lü Long continued to internally use the title of Heavenly Prince. Yao Shuode then withdrew.

However, Lü Long continued to be under constant attack by both Southern Liang and Northern Liang, and just a few months after Yao Shuode's withdrawal Lü Chao suffered a major defeat at the hands of the Southern Liang general Tufa Rutan. Due to the wars, there was a severe famine, so much so that more than 100,000 people were starved. Everyday, hundreds of the residents of Guzang pled to exit the city, even knowing that they would be captured to be slaves. Lü Long was angry at these behaviors, believing that this damaged his regime's image, and therefore executed these people. Lü Long tried to make peace with both Southern Liang and Northern Liang, and in 402 had a brief peace with both, even obtaining some famine relief from Northern Liang's prince Juqu Mengxun, but the peace did not last, nor did Later Qin military assistance stop the attacks.

By 403, Lü Long was desperate. Meanwhile, Later Qin officials advised Yao Xing to take control of Later Liang territory directly, believing that if Lü Long somehow survived this crisis, he would no longer be a vassal. Yao Xing therefore summoned Lü Chao to Chang'an, intending to use his absence to force Lü Long to submit. When Lü Long received the order, he decided to end the state of siege altogether by offering his territory -- now not much more than Guzang itself -- to Later Qin. Yao Xing sent his general Qi Nan with a large force to protect and escort Lü Long to Chang'an. Lü Long welcomed him and then, after saying farewell to Lü Guang's temple, left for Chang'an. Later Qin took over the city, and Later Liang was no more.

Under Later Qin rule

Lü Long was made a Later Qin official, and he used his Later Qin-bestowed title of Duke of Jiankang. Little is known about most of the duration that he spent under Later Qin rule. However, late in Yao Xing's reign, he became involved in the plot by Yao Xing's son Yao Bi the Duke of Guangping to seize the position of crown prince from his brother Yao Hong, and in 416, after a failed attempt by Yao Bi's associates to seize power in a coup, Yao Bi was forced to commit suicide, and Lü Long, along with other co-conspirators, were arrested. He was executed by Yao Hong shortly after Yao Xing then died the next day, as was his brother Lü Chao.

Era name

* ''Shending'' 401-403

Personal information

* Father
** Lü Bao , brother of Lü Guang
* Mother
**
* Wife
**

Qiao Zong

Qiao Zong was a Han Chinese military leader in present-day Sichuan province in China during the Eastern . He proclaimed himself the Prince of Chengdu in 405 and was given the title "Prince of Shu" by Yao Xing, ruler of the Later Qin, in 409. His state is therefore sometimes known as Western Shu. His self-governing body coordinated offensive campaigns with Later Qin along the Yangtze River until Qiao's state was destroyed by a campaign under military subordinates of in 413.

Background and establishment of Western Shu

Qiao Zong was from Baxi Commandery . By 405, he was a mid-level military commander under the command of Mao Qu , the governor of Yi Province . In 404, the warlord Huan Xuan had usurped the Jin throne from , and Mao had, in response, mobilized his forces to ready to attack Huan Xuan, but Huan Xuan was quickly overthrown by , who restored Emperor An. However, Huan Xuan's nephew Huan Zhen occupied the important city of Jiangling and continued to resist. Mao therefore continued to advance east, ready to attack Huan Zhen. He divided his forces into two groups, one commanded by his brothers Mao Jin and Mao Yuan , and one commanded by Qiao Zong and Hou Hui .

However, the soldiers of Yi Province were not happy at this long-distance campaign, and when the forces commanded by Qiao and Hou reached Wuchengshuikou , Hou and another officer, Yang Mo , plotted a mutiny. Because Qiao Zong was considered a kind and careful man, the soldiers respected him, and therefore Hou and Yang tried to force Qiao to be their leader. Qiao refused and ran, but as the soldiers closed in on him, he tried to jump into the river to commit suicide, but he was pulled out of the water, and, with swords on his neck, forced to assume a place on a royal litter. Qiao pled against it, even prostrating himself on the ground and bowing to the soldiers, but was tied to the litter and forced to "lead" the muntineers. The mutineers then attacked and killed Mao Jin. When Mao Qu tried to respond, he was defeated and killed as well, along with Mao Yuan and their clan. Qiao Zong assumed the title Prince of Chengdu, and set his capital at Chengdu, the capital of Yi Province.

Reign

The traditional histories, such as ''Jin Shu'' and ''Zizhi Tongjian'', had little to say about Qiao Zong, but it appeared that he entrusted the important matters of the state and military to his brother Qiao Mingzi and cousins Qiao Hong and Qiao Daofu .

In 406, Liu Yu sent the generals Mao Xiuzhi , Sima Rongqi , Wen Chumao , and Shi Yanzu to attack Western Shu, but on the way, Sima Rongqi was assassinated by his subordinate Yang Chengzu , and the Jin forces had to retreat to Baidicheng. In 407, Mao Xiuzhi defeated and killed Yang, but Liu Yu sent another general, Liu Jingxuan , to attack Western Shu. Also around this time, Qiao Zong submitted as a vassal to Later Qin's emperor Yao Xing. He also secretly maintained a relationship with Jin's governor of Guang Province , Lu Xun , who was formally a Jin official but had maintained in reality an independent administration over his domain.

In 408, Qiao Zong requested Yao Xing to send Huan Xuan's cousin Huan Qian to Chengdu, so that he and Huan Qian could jointly attack Jin. Huan Qian, believing that the people of the western provinces of Jin would follow him, went to Chengdu despite Yao Xing's misgivings about Qiao Zong's intentions, and when Huan Qian arrived in Chengdu and received welcome from many, Qiao Zong became suspicious and put him under house arrest.

In late 408, Liu Jingxuan advanced to Huanghu , and Qiao Zong sought aid from Later Qin; Yao Xing sent an army to assist him, but at the same time, Qiao Daofu was able to resist Liu Jingxuan's advance, and after the armies stalemated for 60 days, Liu Jingxuan's army ran out of food supplies and grew ill, and was forced to retreat.

In 409, Yao Xing created Qiao Zong the Prince of Shu, and granted him the nine bestowments.

In fall 410, after Liu Yu had destroyed Southern Yan, Lu Xun took the opportunity to capture much of Jin territory, but then was forced to retreat when Liu Yu returned from his Southern Yan campaign. Qiao Zong then, after approval from Yao Xing, attacked Jing Province with Huan Qian and the Later Qin general Gou Lin . They were, however, defeated by Liu Yu's brother Liu Daogui , and Huan Qian was killed. Qiao Zong withdrew back to his domain, but did manage to, in the process, capture Badong Commandery .

In 412, Liu Yu commissioned the general Zhu Lingshi to command an army of 20,000 men against Western Shu. He ordered Zhu to take an alternative route than the one that Liu Jingxuan had taken -- to bypass Huanghu and head for Chengdu by the circumlocutous route of Min River , but to avoid dissension and the news being leaked to Western Shu, Liu Yu also sealed his orders and publicly stated to Zhu to have them opened when he reaches Baidicheng. Zhu did so in summer 413, and the orders were as Liu Yu had previously told Zhu. Qiao Zong, not anticipating this, had Qiao Daofu defend the same route that Liu Jingxuan took -- by Fu River , with his army camped at Fucheng . Only when Zhu reached Pingmo did a Western Shu army, commanded by Hou Hui and Qiao Shen arrive to try to stop Zhu. Zhu attacked and killed Hou and Qiao Shen, and then abandoned his ships and headed directly toward Chengdu, facing little resistance on the way.

Qiao Zong, hearing that Zhu was about to arrive, abandoned Chengdu and fled toward Qiao Daofu's camp. His daughter suggested that they commit suicide on the ancestral tombs, but Qiao Zong refused. When he met Qiao Daofu, Qiao Daofu rebuked him for abandoning Chengdu, and he threw his sword at Qiao Zong. Qiao Zong fled but, believing that he could not escape, committed suicide by hanging. Qiao Daofu tried to continue to resist, but his army collapsed, and he was captured and killed by Zhu. Western Shu was at its end.

Qifu Chipan

Qifu Chipan , formally Prince Wenzhao of Qin , was a prince of the /Xianbei state Western Qin. During his reign, Western Qin reached its prime after he destroyed and seized the territory of the rival state Southern Liang in 414, but it then began a gradual decline under attacks by and Northern Liang. When he died in 428, he left his state in a troubled position, and by 431, his state was destroyed, and his son Qifu Mumo captured and then killed by the Xia emperor Helian Ding.

During Qifu Gangui's first reign

It is not known when Qifu Shipan was born to his father Qifu Gangui, nor is it known for certain who his mother was. However, it appears likely that he was born prior to Western Qin's establishment by his uncle Qifu Guoren , because he was Qifu Gangui's oldest son, and it also appears likely that his mother was Qifu Gangui's wife . In 388, after Qifu Gangui died, Qifu Chipan became prince.

The first historical reference to Qifu Chipan was in 393, when Qifu Gangui created Qifu Chipan crown prince. By this point, he was already described as brave and intelligent, and more capable than his father. He quickly became a key official in his father's administration.

As Southern Liang and Later Qin subject

In 400, Qifu Gangui suffered a major defeat at the hands of the Later Qin emperor Yao Xing, and most of his state was seized by Later Qin. Qifu Gangui concluded that he could not sustain a state any more, and instructed his officials to surrender to Later Qin, while he himself surrendered to Southern Liang's prince Tufa Lilugu, who welcomed him as an honored guest. Tufa Lilugu's brother Tufa Juyan suspected Qifu Gangui's intentions, and suggested that Tufa Lilugu exile him to the Yifu tribe , a suggestion that Tufa Lilugu rejected. However, worried that Qifu Gangui would try to reestablish his state, he sent an army to watch over him. Qifu Gangui, fearing that he would be executed, then regained trust from Tufa Lilugu by sending Qifu Chipan, his brothers, and their mother to the Southern Liang capital Xiping as hostages. He himself, however, as soon as the Southern Liang guard was down, fled to Fuhan and surrendered to Later Qin.

It might have been around this time that Qifu Chipan married the of Tufa Lilugu's brother Tufa Rutan, and later, when Qifu Chipan tried to flee to Later Qin to join his father but was captured on the way, Tufa Rutan urged for his life against Tufa Lilugu's initial desire to execute him, and Tufa Lilugu agreed with Tufa Rutan. After Tufa Lilugu died in 402 and was succeeded by Tufa Rutan, Qifu Chipan successfully escaped and fled to his father, who by then had been made a key Later Qin general. Tufa Rutan sent Qifu Chipan's wife and children to him. Qifu Gangui, who was then in control of his old capital Wanchuan , sent Qifu Chipan to the Later Qin capital Chang'an to visit the emperor Yao Xing, and Yao Xing made him a commandery governor.

In 407, concerned that Qifu Gangui was becoming stronger and more difficult to control, Yao Xing detained him while he was visiting Chang'an, and had Qifu Chipan take over his post. Later that year, when Tufa Rutan, who had nominally been a Later Qin vassal, considered renouncing that status, he sent messengers to Qifu Chipan urging him to join the rebellion. Qifu Chipan beheaded Tufa Rutan's messengers and sent their heads to Chang'an.

In 408, believing that Later Qin was growing weaker, he built a castle at Kanglang Mountain to both prepare to defend himself against Later Qin's enemies and against a potential Later Qin campaign against him. In 409, he captured Fuhan from the Later Qin rebel Peng Xi'nian and secretly sent messengers to inform Qifu Gangui of this. Qifu Gangui, who was then attending Yao Xing at Pingliang , then escaped and fled back to Wanchuan to join him. Soon, Qifu Gangui moved his home base to Dujianshan but left Qifu Chipan in command of Fuhan. Late that year, Qifu Gangui redeclared independence with the title Prince of Qin, and he created Qifu Chipan crown prince again.

During Qifu Gangui's second reign

Qifu Chipan became the person that his father relied on the most on military matters. He made the scholar Jiao Yi Qifu Chipan's teacher, and told Qifu Chipan to serve Jiao like a father, and Qifu Chipan did so.

In 411, Qifu Gangui, after some campaigns against Later Qin, agreed to nominally resubmit at a vassal, and Yao Xing created him the Prince of Henan and Qifu Chipan the Duke of Pingchang. Later that year, Qifu Gangui sent Qifu Chipan and his brother Qifu Shenqian on a campaign against Southern Liang, and they had a major victory over Tufa Rutan's crown prince Tufa Hutai , capturing more than 100,000 animals.

In spring 412, Qifu Gangui moved the capital to Tanjiao , leaving Qifu Chipan in command of Wanchuan. In summer 412, while at Tanjiao, Qifu Gangui was assassinated by Qifu Guoren's son Qifu Gongfu , who also killed more than 10 brothers of Qifu Chipan. Qifu Gongfu then took up a defense position at Daxia . Qifu Chipan sent his brothers Qifu Zhida and Qifu Muyigan to attack Qifu Gongfu, while moving the capital to Fuhan. Qifu Zhida, meanwhile, defeated Qifu Gongfu and executed him, his sons, and his brother Qifu Achai . Qifu Chipan was now the undisputed heir, and he claimed the title Prince of Henan.

Early reign

Early in his reign, Qifu Chipan continued his state's expansion at the expense of Tuyuhun, Southern Liang and Later Qin, and he further forced local tribes which were not under his father's rule into submission.

In 414, upon receiving news that Tufa Rutan was attacking rebellious Tuoqihan and Yifu tribes, leaving Tufa Hutai in command of the Southern Liang capital Ledu , Qiifu Chipan decided to make a surprise attack on Ledu. He quickly arrived at Ledu and put it under siege. Soon, Ledu fell, and he relocated Tufa Hutai and his subordinates to Fuhan, while sending his army further to face Tufa Rutan. Tufa Rutan's troops, hearing that Ledu had fallen, collapsed, and Tufa Rutan surrendered, ending Southern Liang and allowing Qifu Chipan to seize the remaining Southern Liang territory. Qifu Chipan welcomed him as an honored guest, creating him the Duke of Zuonan, and created Tufa Rutan's daughter his princess. However, in 415 he poisoned Tufa Rutan to death.

Having annexed Southern Liang into his state, in 414 Qifu Chipan claimed the greater title of Prince of Qin. He also resumed his attacks on Later Qin. However, now that there was no longer Southern Liang serving as a buffer between them, he soon got into constant warfare with Northern Liang's prince Juqu Mengxun, often at Western Qin's expense. In 416, he made peace with Juqu Mengxun. Meanwhile, in 416, with Later Qin under major attack from the general , he sent messengers to Liu Yu offering to be a vassal, and Liu Yu gave him the title Duke of Henan. By 417, Liu Yu had destroyed Later Qin, but he did not further head west to attack Western Qin, which seized a number of Later Qin cities on the borders. By 418, however, Jin had against lost the Guanzhong region to 's emperor Helian Bobo, and Xia, strengthened by its victories over Jin, now posed a major threat against Western Qin.

Late reign

In 420, Qifu Chipan created his son Qifu Mumo crown prince. That year, Qifu Chipan also received a nominal commission as a major general from Liu Yu, who had by now seized the Jin throne and established Liu Song.

In 421, the peace with Northern Liang ended, perhaps because Northern Liang had destroyed Western Liang in 420 and now could concentrate on warfare with its southern neighbor Western Qin. The battles were often inconclusive, but the war continued to wear Western Qin down.

In 423, Qifu Chipan made the declaration to his officials that he now believed that Northern Wei was the state favored by the gods, and that its emperors were capable, and so he would offer to be a Northern Wei vassal. He then sent messengers to Northern Wei, offering suggestions on how to conquer Xia. In 426, he again requested that Northern Wei attack Xia.

Later in 426, Qifu Chipan would suffer a major defeat that would debilitate his state. He was attacking Northern Liang when Northern Liang's prince Juqu Mengxun persuaded the Xia emperor Helian Chang to attack Fuhan. Helian Chang, in response, sent his general Hulu Gu to attack Wanchuan and Wei Fa to attack Nan'an , and while Western Qin was able to hold Wanchuan, Nan'an fell, at great loss. In winter 426, Xia forces commanded by Hulu and Wei attacked Fuhan, forcing Qifu Gangui to move the capital to Dinglian , and Hulu and Wei then captured another important Western Qin city, Xiping , and while they then withdrew, Western Qin had been dealt a major blow.

In 427, Qifu Chipan moved his capital back to Fuhan, and hearing that Northern Wei had captured the Xia capital Tongwan and forced Helian Chang to flee to Shanggui , he sent his uncle Qifu Wotou to offer tributes to Northern Wei. By this point, however, Western Qin was also still under constant attack by Northern Liang and Chouchi.

In summer 428, Qifu Chipan, after telling Qifu Mumo to try to make peace with Northern Liang by returning Juqu Mengxun's advisor Juqu Chengdu , whom he had captured in 422), died, and Qifu Mumo succeeded him.

Era names

* ''Yongkang'' 412-419
* ''Jianhong'' 419-428

Personal information

* Father
** Qifu Gangui
* Wife
** Princess Tufa , daughter of Tufa Rutan, prince of Southern Liang
* Major Concubines
** Left Consort Tufa, daughter of Tufa Rutan
* Children
** Qifu Mumo , the Crown Prince , later prince
** Qifu Yuanji
** Qifu Keshuluo
** Qifu Chenglong

Tufa Lilugu

Tufa Lilugu , formally Prince Kang of Hexi , was a prince of the /Xianbei state Southern Liang. He was a younger brother of the founding prince Tufa Wugu . He was described as a capable ruler open to different opinions. He was also, somewhat contradictorily, described as having entrusted most important affairs of state to his talented brother Tufa Rutan, who was later succeed him as Prince Jing.

Before reign

The first historical reference to Tufa Lilugu was in 397, shortly after Tufa Wugu had declared independence from Later Liang and established Southern Liang. The fall of that year, Tufa Wugu sent him to assist the Later Liang rebel Guo Nen . In summer 398, he, along with another Later Liang rebel, Yang Gui , jointly battled Lü Zuan, the son of the Later Liang emperor Lü Guang, but was defeated by Lü Zuan, leading Yang Gui to eventually give up his rebellion and flee to Southern Liang. In 399, as part of Tufa Wugu's realignment of the state's defenses when moving the capital from Jincheng to Ledu , he was put in charge of Anyi . He was also described with the title Duke of Xiping at this point, although it was probably that Tufa Wugu created him with this title in 397, even though that was not mentioned. In summer 399, Tufa Wugu sent him to assist Northern Liang's prince Duan Ye when Northern Liang was under attack by Lü Zuan and Lü Guang's crown prince Lü Shao, forcing Lü Zuan and Lü Shao to withdraw. Soon thereafter, he was put in charge of the city of Xiping .

Later that year, Tufa Wugu suffered a serious horse-riding accident when drunk, and in his last words ordered that an older person be selected to succeed him. The Southern Liang nobles therefore selected Tufa Lilugu to succeed him.

Reign

After succeeding Tufa Wugu, Tufa Lilugu moved the capital from Ledu to Xiping. In early 400, Lü Zuan, who had by that point become the emperor of Later Liang, planned to attack him -- and Lü Zuan's official Yang Ying , in trying to persuade Lü Zuan not to attack, described Tufa Lilugu's regime as one "with an united heart, with subordinates who faithfully carried out his instructions, with no opportunity to take advantage of," a description, if accurate, speaks well of Tufa Lilugu. Indeed, when Lü Zuan attacked anyway notwithstanding Yang's words, Tufa Wugu sent Tufa Rutan against him and defeated him.

In summer 400, when Lü Zuan made a major attack on Northern Liang, Tufa Rutan, probably at Tufa Lilugu's instruction, made a surprise attack on the Later Liang capital Guzang , entering Guzang's eastern half and then retreating after successfully pillaging the city, forcing Lü Zuan to abandon his Northern Liang campaign.

Later that year, after Western Qin's prince Qifu Gangui was defeated by Later Qin, Qifu Gangui surrendered to Tufa Lilugu. Initially, Tufa Lilugu's brother Tufa Juyan suspected Qifu Gangui's sincerity and requested that Qifu Gangui be exiled to west of the Qinghai Lake -- a suggestion that Tufa Lilugu rejected on the grounds that if he did so, no one else would surrender to him. However, when Qifu Gangui subsequently redefected to Later Qin, Tufa Lilugu much regretted the decision not to exile or kill him. Later, when Qifu Gangui's son Qifu Chipan tried to defect as well to join his father, Tufa Lilugu was prepared to execute him, but at Tufa Rutan's urging , did not do so.

In spring 401, at the urging of many of his officials, Tufa Lilugu considered declaring himself emperor. However, he accepted the advice from the general Tou Wulun that such a declaration would make him a target for others, and did not do so; rather, he only changed his title from Prince of Wuwei to Prince of Hexi, signifying a claim over the region west of the Yellow River. Later that year, he personally made a successful attack against Later Liang's emperor Lü Long .

Later in 401, there was an exchange between Tufa Lilugu and his official Shi Gao that might have demonstrated both Tufa Lilugu's strengths and weaknesses as a ruler. This was at an occasion when Tufa Lilugu ordered his officials to offer frank criticism of his rule. Shi Gao, in response, said:

:''Each time, when your majesty sent generals on military campaigns, no one could oppose them. However, they do not treat pacifying the populace as the priority, but rather concentrated on relocating them. The people like stability in life and fear unfamiliar locales. That is why many people rebel or escape. This is why we continuously kill enemy generals and capture enemy cities, but our lands do not increase.''

Tufa Lilugu agreed with Shi. However, there was no record of Tufa Lilugu changing his policies due to Shi's suggestions. Indeed, for the rest of Tufa Lilugu's reigns, there were continued references to forcible movements of people by Southern Liang troops.

Despite this, by this point, Tufa Lilugu's power appeared evident, so much so that in fall 401, the new prince of Northern Liang, Juqu Mengxun, was forced to send his son Juqu Xinian as a hostage to Tufa Lilugu to show his submission. Tufa Lilugu, however, rejected Juqu Xinian as a hostage, stating that Juqu Xinian was too young and he wanted Juqu Mengxun to send his brother Juqu Ru -- a major strategist and general for Juqu Mengxun. Juqu Mengxun initially refused -- stating that he needed Juqu Ru to assist him -- which drew anger from Tufa Lilugu, who sent Tufa Juyan the Marquess of Zhangsong and another brother, Tufa Wenzhi the Marquess of Xingcheng against Northern Liang and captured Juqu Mengxun's cousin Juqu Shanshan'gouzi . Juqu Mengxun made a humbler submission after that point and sent his uncle Juqu Kongzhe to promise to sent Juqu Ru as a hostage, before Tufa Lilugu would withdraw his troops and return the people they captured. However, Tufa Lilugu himself was aware of his own power's limitations, and he also nominally submitted to Yao Xing, the emperor of Later Qin, sending tributes to Yao Xing, and in 401, when Later Qin attacked Later Liang, he ordered his troops to withdraw to yield a path for Later Qin troops.

Around the new year 402, in response to a request for assistance from the Later Liang rebel Jiao Lang , Tufa Lilugu sent Tufa Rutan to assist Jiao, and Tufa Rutan and Jiao then attacked Guzang, dealing Later Liang a major defeat. Oddly enough, however, when Northern Liang attacked Later Liang in spring 402, Tufa Lilugu sent Tufa Rutan to aid Later Liang, although by the time Tufa Rutan arrived, Northern Liang had already retreated.

Later in spring 402, Tufa Lilugu grew ill, and he instructed that the state be entrusted to Tufa Rutan. After Tufa Lilugu died, Tufa Rutan succeeded him as Prince Jing.

Era name

* ''Jianhe'' 400-402

Personal information

* Father
** Tufa Sifujian , Xianbei tribal chief

Tufa Rutan

Tufa Rutan , formally Prince Jing of Liang) , was the last prince of the /Xianbei state Southern Liang. As he was the son that his father, the Xianbei chief Tufa Sifujian , considered most talented, his older brothers, the founding prince Tufa Wugu and Tufa Lilugu both decided to pass the throne to a brother, intending that he receive the throne. However, Tufa Rutan, while obviously talented as a general, is viewed by historians as being overly aggressive in waging military campaigns, and he greatly drained the resources of the Southern Liang people while doing so. Southern Liang's strength particularly waned after a major 407 defeat at the hand of the emperor , and it drew attacks from its neighbors Northern Liang and Western Qin. Eventually, Tufa Rutan was forced to surrender to Western Qin in 414 after Western Qin captured his capital Ledu , and he was poisoned to death a year later.

During the reigns of Tufa Wugu and Tufa Lilugu

After Tufa Wugu founded Southern Liang in 397 by breaking away from Later Liang, Tufa Rutan immediately began to play a major role in the military and governmental affairs of the state. In 398, Tufa Wugu sent him to assist the Later Liang rebels Yang Gui and Guo Nen . In spring 399, after Tufa Wugu moved the capital from Lianchuan to Ledu in a major realignment of his military strengths, Tufa Rutan was put in charge of the important city of Xiping , and by this time, he was referred to by the title of Duke of Guangwu, a title that Tufa Wugu himself had carried earlier. In summer 399, Tufa Wugu recalled him to Ledu to head his government, while replacing him at Xiping with Tufa Lilugu.

Later in 399, Tufa Wugu suffered a serious injury while horseriding when drunk, and, because his last words were that the state should be entrusted to someone old, was succeeded by Tufa Lilugu. Tufa Lilugu entrusted all important governmental matters to him and effectively designated him as the next prince.

In 400, when the Later Liang emperor Lü Zuan attacked Northern Liang, Tufa Rutan launched a raid at the Later Liang capital Guzang , entering the city and, while not staying permanently in the city, held a feast in the city and forced 8,000 households to relocate back to Southern Liang with him.

Later in 400, when, in light of defeats by Later Qin, the Western Qin prince Qifu Gangui surrendered to Tufa Lilugu, Tufa Lilugu sent Tufa Rutan to welcome him. It might have been at this time that Tufa Rutan gave a daughter in marriage to Qifu Gangui's son Qifu Chipan, but it is not completely clear. What is clear is that later in the year, Qifu Gangui took flight again and surrendered to Later Qin, and when Qifu Chipan tried to join Qifu Gangui but was detained, it was at Tufa Rutan's suggestion that killing Qifu Chipan for wanting to join his father would appear narrow-minded that Tufa Lilugu did not execute Qifu Chipan.

It was around this time when Later Liang's general Jiang Ji surrendered to Southern Liang. Tufa Rutan, impressed by Jiang's talent, befriended him and spent much time with him, despite Tufa Lilugu's distrust of Jiang. Jiang, however, soon turned against Southern Liang and fled to Later Qin, offering its emperor Yao Xing strategies on conquering Later Liang and resisting Southern Liang.

Around the new year 402, the Later Liang rebel Jiao Lang sought aid from Southern Liang, and Tufa Lilugu sent Tufa Rutan to aid him, but when Tufa Rutan arrived, Jiao would not receive him. Tufa Rutan initially was angry and wanted to attack Jiao instead, but at the suggestion of his brother Tufa Juyan reconciled with Jiao and jointly attacked Guzang and, while not capturing the city at the time, dealt the Later Liang general Lü Chao a major defeat. Later that year, however, when Later Liang was attacked by Northern Liang's prince Juqu Mengxun, Tufa Rutan came to Later Liang's aid. He soon arrested Jiao and delivered him to Tufa Lilugu as well.

Later in 402, Tufa Lilugu died from illness, and he left instructions that the throne be passed to Tufa Rutan. Tufa Rutan accepted, and moved the capital from Xiping back to Ledu.

Early reign

Tufa Rutan did not relent in his military pressure against Later Liang, and his attacks against Later Liang continued to have a destabilizing effect on Later Liang. He nominally agreed to be a Later Qin vassal, and was created the Duke of Guangwu, although he continued to internally use the title Prince of Hexi, which Tufa Lilugu used.

In summer 402, Qifu Chipan escaped and joined his father Qifu Gangui. Tufa Rutan delivered Qifu Chipan's wife and children to him.

In 403, in light of pressure from Tufa Rutan and Juqu Mengxun, Lü Long decided to end his state, surrendering Guzang to Later Qin. Tufa Rutan, apprehensive of Later Qin's power, withdrew his troops to allow Later Qin forces through to Guzang to receive Lü Long and the city. In 404, he further ended his nominal independence by ending the use of his own era name and instead using Later Qin's to show allegiance to Later Qin. He stopped using his own princely title, and used only the Later Qin-created title of Duke of Guangwu. He also made a request to Yao Xing that he be allowed to have Guzang, but Yao Xing refused.

Middle reign

While Southern Liang and Northern Liang had both become Later Qin vassals, they started sporadic but incessant warring with each other after their joint enemy, Later Liang, ceased existence. In 406, Tufa Rutan attacked Northern Liang but after Juqu Mengxun refused to engage him, withdrew, and he made a tribute of 3,000 horses and 30,000 horses to Yao Xing, greatly touching Yao Xing and making him believing in Tufa Rutan's loyalty, and so he commissioned Tufa Rutan with governorship of Liang Province , giving him Guzang. Later that year, Tufa Rutan moved his capital from Ledu to Guzang. He also entered into an alliance with Western Liáng's duke Li Gao, aimed against Northern Liang.

While Tufa Rutan was nominally a Later Qin vassal, he did not actually wish to serve Yao Xing long, and in 407 he proposed to Qifu Chipan an alliance, but Qifu Chipan executed his messengers and delivered their heads to Yao Xing. Still, at this time, Southern Liang's power was at its apex.

At this time, though, a major defeat would cause Southern Liang's strength to begin to wane. In winter 407, the Later Qin rebel Liu Bobo, who had earlier that year broken from Later Qin and established , requested to marry Tufa Rutan's daughter. Tufa Rutan refused, and in anger Liu Bobo launched a punitive raid against Southern Liang but then retreated. Tufa Rutan gave chase and, believing that he greatly outpowered Liu Bobo, was careless in his military actions. Liu Bobo led him into a canyon and then blocked the exit with ice and wagons, and then ambushed him -- and the defeat was such that it was said that 60% to 70% of Southern Liang's famed officials and generals died in the battle. Tufa Rutan barely escaped capture. In fear, Tufa Rutan ordered that all of the people within 150 kilometers of Guzang be moved into the capital, which immediately led to mass panic and a rebellion by the Xiongnu chief Cheng Qi'er . While Cheng's rebellion was defeated, Tufa Rutan's domain had been greatly wounded.

In light of Tufa Rutan's defeat, Yao Xing plotted his destruction, despite the advice of Wei Zong , an official of his who had personal knowledge of Tufa Rutan's ability, against such action. In 408, he commissioned his son Yao Bi the Duke of Guangping to lead a large force with generals Lian Cheng and Qifu Gangui to make a surprise attack on Southern Liang -- tricking Tufa Rutan into initially not resisting by informing him that the army was intended to be part of a pincer movement against Xia. Only when the Later Qin forces reached Guzang's vicinity did Tufa Rutan realize what the purpose of the campaign was, and he defended the city against Yao Bi. When a rebellion inside the city itself, led by Wang Zhong , threatened to cause the city to fall, Tufa Rutan buried some 5,000 people alive, and he then defeated Yao Bi. When Yao Xing sent Yao Xian the Duke of Changshan to aid Yao Bi, Tufa Rutan defeated him as well, and Yao Xian, in fear, blamed Lian for the entire campaign and apologized to Tufa Rutan, and then withdrew with Yao Bi. Tufa Rutan also sent a messenger to Chang'an to request forgiveness.

In winter 408, Tufa Rutan again declared independence, and claimed the title of Prince of Liang, in light of Later Qin's defeats at his own hands and at the hands of Liu Bobo. He created his wife princess, and his son Tufa Hutai crown prince.

Late reign

The redeclaration of independence might have been intended to show strength, but by this point Southern Liang was in definite trouble, being in constant draining warfare with Northern Liang and Qifu Gangui's Western Qin, and historians generally view Tufa Rutan as responsible for the continued deterioration of Southern Liang's strength by continuing to initiate wars as well despite the obvious fatigue his state was suffering.

In 410, one of Tufa Rutan's campaigns would hurt him greatly. He attacked Northern Liang and forced 1,000 households to move to his state. In retaliation, Juqu Mengxun pillaged a larger number of households from his state, and when Tufa Rutan's broughter Tufa Juyan responded, Juqu Mengxun defeated him. When Tufa Rutan himself followed with a larger force, Juqu Mengxun defeated him as well, and then advanced on Guzang and put it under siege. The residents of Guzang, remembering the massacre that Tufa Rutan carried out during Wang Zhong's rebellion, panicked, and a large number surrendered to Juqu Mengxun. With his general Zhequ Qizhen also rebelling to the south, Tufa Rutan became apprehensive, and moved the capital from Guzang back to Ledu. The general Jiao Lang quickly rebelled and held Guzang, although Juqu Mengxun conquered it in 411, and then advanced on Ledu, sieging it for more than a month before Tufa Rutan submitted by sending his son Tufa Anzhou to Juqu Mengxun as a hostage.

However, Tufa Rutan soon again planned revenge, and later that year he launched another attack on Northern Liang, which was initially successful, but his army withdrew at an overly leisurely pace, and when the weather turned against him, Juqu Mengxun caught him and defeated him, again sieging Ledu, forcing him to then send his son Tufa Rangan as a hostage so that Juqu Mengxun would withdraw.

In 413, Tufa Rutan launched yet another campaign against Northern Liang, and was again defeated. Juqu Mengxun again put Ledu under siege but could not capture it. However, Tufa Rutan's general Tufa Wenzhi then rebelled, encouraging Juqu Mengxun to launch a new attack. Tufa Rutan was forced to send his brother Juqu Juyan to Northern Liang as a hostage.

In 414, the Tuoqihan and Yifu tribes rebelled, and despite the state of desperation Southern Liang was in, Tufa Rutan, leaving his crown prince Tufa Hutai in command at Ledu, launched an attack against Yifu -- which was quite successful. However, Qifu Chipan, who had by this point succeeded Qifu Gangui as Western Qin's prince, launched an attack on Ledu, sieging it. Tufa Hutai panicked, and forced the in the city into the inner citadel because he distrusted them, greatly weakening his own defense force, and Ledu fell. Tufa Hutai was captured.

Tufa Rutan's nephew Tufa Fani escaped and informed Tufa Rutan what had happened. Tufa Rutan informed his troops that his plans were then to attack the Tuoqihan tribe, and then use the proceeds from the pillaging to ransom the people of Ledu from Western Qin. However, the troops, upon hearing the news, collapsed and deserted him. Tufa Rutan was forced to surrender to Western Qin as well.

After end of Southern Liang

Qifu Chipan initially treated Tufa Rutan as an honored guest. He created Tufa Rutan the Duke of Zuonan and his princess. However, in 415, he secretly had Tufa Rutan poisoned. After he was poisoned, Tufa Rutan realized what was happening, and refused all treatment. He died soon thereafter. In 423, Tufa Rutan and Princess Tufa, who plotted to try to avenge him, were discovered and executed by Tufa Chipan as well.

Era names

* ''Hongchang'' 402-404
* ''Jiaping'' 409-414

Personal information

* Father
** Tufa Sifujian , Xianbei tribal chief
* Wife
** Princess Zhejue
* Children
** Tufa Hutai , the Crown Prince
** Tufa Anzhou
** Tufa Rangan
** Tufa Baozhou
** Tufa He , later changed name to Yuan He
** A daughter, later Princess Tufa of Western Qin
** A daughter, later Qifu Chipan's Left Consort