Lu Long

Lü Long , courtesy name Yongji , was the last emperor of the / state Later Liang. He was the nephew of the founding emperor Lü Guang , and he took the throne after his brother Lü Chao assassinated the emperor Lü Zuan in 401 and offered the throne to him. During his reign, Later Liang was under constant attacks by Northern Liang and Southern Liang and reduced largely to its capital Guzang . In 403, Lü Long decided to end the state by surrendering Guzang to Later Qin's emperor Yao Xing. He became a Later Qin official, but after aligning himself with Yao Xing's son Yao Bi , who made unsuccessful attempts to seize the crown prince position from Yao Hong, was executed by Yao Hong after Yao Xing's death in 416.

Early life

Not much is known about Lü Long's early life, and his birthdate is not known, and virtually nothing is known about his father Lü Bao. He was described as handsome and skilled at horsemanship and archery. Late in the reign of his uncle Lü Guang he served as a general, but he did not have the same prominence that his younger brother Lü Chao had.

In 401, Lü Chao assassinated Lü Guang's son Lü Zuan and killed Lü Zuan's brother Lü Wei the Duke of Longxi, and then offered the throne to Lü Long. Initially, Lü Long was hesitant to accept, but Lü Chao compared this to riding a dragon up to heaven and not being able to get off, and Lü Long accepted, using the title "Heavenly Prince" , roughly equivalent to emperor. He honored his mother Lady Wei as empress dowager, and created his wife as empress. He created Lü Chao the Duke of Anding and entrusted most governmental and military affairs to him.

Reign

Lü Long, however, instead of correcting Lü Zuan's rule , continued the violence by slaughtering many strong clans within his state for the purpose of showing his authority, and the people were further alienated. After hearing this, in summer 401, the Later Qin emperor Yao Xing sent his uncle Yao Shuode to launch a major attack on Later Liang. The Later Qin army quickly reached Guzang and put it under siege. Many of the non-natives in Guzang planned a rebellion to give the city to Later Qin, but were discovered, and Lü Long slaughtered them, but with Yao Shuode's pressure, Lü Chao suggested nominal submission to Later Qin, which Lü Long agreed with, sending his nephews and some 50 clans to the Later Qin capital Chang'an as hostages to guarantee his faithfulness. Per Yao Shuode's recommendation, Yao Xing created him the Duke of Jiankang, although Lü Long continued to internally use the title of Heavenly Prince. Yao Shuode then withdrew.

However, Lü Long continued to be under constant attack by both Southern Liang and Northern Liang, and just a few months after Yao Shuode's withdrawal Lü Chao suffered a major defeat at the hands of the Southern Liang general Tufa Rutan. Due to the wars, there was a severe famine, so much so that more than 100,000 people were starved. Everyday, hundreds of the residents of Guzang pled to exit the city, even knowing that they would be captured to be slaves. Lü Long was angry at these behaviors, believing that this damaged his regime's image, and therefore executed these people. Lü Long tried to make peace with both Southern Liang and Northern Liang, and in 402 had a brief peace with both, even obtaining some famine relief from Northern Liang's prince Juqu Mengxun, but the peace did not last, nor did Later Qin military assistance stop the attacks.

By 403, Lü Long was desperate. Meanwhile, Later Qin officials advised Yao Xing to take control of Later Liang territory directly, believing that if Lü Long somehow survived this crisis, he would no longer be a vassal. Yao Xing therefore summoned Lü Chao to Chang'an, intending to use his absence to force Lü Long to submit. When Lü Long received the order, he decided to end the state of siege altogether by offering his territory -- now not much more than Guzang itself -- to Later Qin. Yao Xing sent his general Qi Nan with a large force to protect and escort Lü Long to Chang'an. Lü Long welcomed him and then, after saying farewell to Lü Guang's temple, left for Chang'an. Later Qin took over the city, and Later Liang was no more.

Under Later Qin rule

Lü Long was made a Later Qin official, and he used his Later Qin-bestowed title of Duke of Jiankang. Little is known about most of the duration that he spent under Later Qin rule. However, late in Yao Xing's reign, he became involved in the plot by Yao Xing's son Yao Bi the Duke of Guangping to seize the position of crown prince from his brother Yao Hong, and in 416, after a failed attempt by Yao Bi's associates to seize power in a coup, Yao Bi was forced to commit suicide, and Lü Long, along with other co-conspirators, were arrested. He was executed by Yao Hong shortly after Yao Xing then died the next day, as was his brother Lü Chao.

Era name

* ''Shending'' 401-403

Personal information

* Father
** Lü Bao , brother of Lü Guang
* Mother
**
* Wife
**

Qiao Zong

Qiao Zong was a Han Chinese military leader in present-day Sichuan province in China during the Eastern . He proclaimed himself the Prince of Chengdu in 405 and was given the title "Prince of Shu" by Yao Xing, ruler of the Later Qin, in 409. His state is therefore sometimes known as Western Shu. His self-governing body coordinated offensive campaigns with Later Qin along the Yangtze River until Qiao's state was destroyed by a campaign under military subordinates of in 413.

Background and establishment of Western Shu

Qiao Zong was from Baxi Commandery . By 405, he was a mid-level military commander under the command of Mao Qu , the governor of Yi Province . In 404, the warlord Huan Xuan had usurped the Jin throne from , and Mao had, in response, mobilized his forces to ready to attack Huan Xuan, but Huan Xuan was quickly overthrown by , who restored Emperor An. However, Huan Xuan's nephew Huan Zhen occupied the important city of Jiangling and continued to resist. Mao therefore continued to advance east, ready to attack Huan Zhen. He divided his forces into two groups, one commanded by his brothers Mao Jin and Mao Yuan , and one commanded by Qiao Zong and Hou Hui .

However, the soldiers of Yi Province were not happy at this long-distance campaign, and when the forces commanded by Qiao and Hou reached Wuchengshuikou , Hou and another officer, Yang Mo , plotted a mutiny. Because Qiao Zong was considered a kind and careful man, the soldiers respected him, and therefore Hou and Yang tried to force Qiao to be their leader. Qiao refused and ran, but as the soldiers closed in on him, he tried to jump into the river to commit suicide, but he was pulled out of the water, and, with swords on his neck, forced to assume a place on a royal litter. Qiao pled against it, even prostrating himself on the ground and bowing to the soldiers, but was tied to the litter and forced to "lead" the muntineers. The mutineers then attacked and killed Mao Jin. When Mao Qu tried to respond, he was defeated and killed as well, along with Mao Yuan and their clan. Qiao Zong assumed the title Prince of Chengdu, and set his capital at Chengdu, the capital of Yi Province.

Reign

The traditional histories, such as ''Jin Shu'' and ''Zizhi Tongjian'', had little to say about Qiao Zong, but it appeared that he entrusted the important matters of the state and military to his brother Qiao Mingzi and cousins Qiao Hong and Qiao Daofu .

In 406, Liu Yu sent the generals Mao Xiuzhi , Sima Rongqi , Wen Chumao , and Shi Yanzu to attack Western Shu, but on the way, Sima Rongqi was assassinated by his subordinate Yang Chengzu , and the Jin forces had to retreat to Baidicheng. In 407, Mao Xiuzhi defeated and killed Yang, but Liu Yu sent another general, Liu Jingxuan , to attack Western Shu. Also around this time, Qiao Zong submitted as a vassal to Later Qin's emperor Yao Xing. He also secretly maintained a relationship with Jin's governor of Guang Province , Lu Xun , who was formally a Jin official but had maintained in reality an independent administration over his domain.

In 408, Qiao Zong requested Yao Xing to send Huan Xuan's cousin Huan Qian to Chengdu, so that he and Huan Qian could jointly attack Jin. Huan Qian, believing that the people of the western provinces of Jin would follow him, went to Chengdu despite Yao Xing's misgivings about Qiao Zong's intentions, and when Huan Qian arrived in Chengdu and received welcome from many, Qiao Zong became suspicious and put him under house arrest.

In late 408, Liu Jingxuan advanced to Huanghu , and Qiao Zong sought aid from Later Qin; Yao Xing sent an army to assist him, but at the same time, Qiao Daofu was able to resist Liu Jingxuan's advance, and after the armies stalemated for 60 days, Liu Jingxuan's army ran out of food supplies and grew ill, and was forced to retreat.

In 409, Yao Xing created Qiao Zong the Prince of Shu, and granted him the nine bestowments.

In fall 410, after Liu Yu had destroyed Southern Yan, Lu Xun took the opportunity to capture much of Jin territory, but then was forced to retreat when Liu Yu returned from his Southern Yan campaign. Qiao Zong then, after approval from Yao Xing, attacked Jing Province with Huan Qian and the Later Qin general Gou Lin . They were, however, defeated by Liu Yu's brother Liu Daogui , and Huan Qian was killed. Qiao Zong withdrew back to his domain, but did manage to, in the process, capture Badong Commandery .

In 412, Liu Yu commissioned the general Zhu Lingshi to command an army of 20,000 men against Western Shu. He ordered Zhu to take an alternative route than the one that Liu Jingxuan had taken -- to bypass Huanghu and head for Chengdu by the circumlocutous route of Min River , but to avoid dissension and the news being leaked to Western Shu, Liu Yu also sealed his orders and publicly stated to Zhu to have them opened when he reaches Baidicheng. Zhu did so in summer 413, and the orders were as Liu Yu had previously told Zhu. Qiao Zong, not anticipating this, had Qiao Daofu defend the same route that Liu Jingxuan took -- by Fu River , with his army camped at Fucheng . Only when Zhu reached Pingmo did a Western Shu army, commanded by Hou Hui and Qiao Shen arrive to try to stop Zhu. Zhu attacked and killed Hou and Qiao Shen, and then abandoned his ships and headed directly toward Chengdu, facing little resistance on the way.

Qiao Zong, hearing that Zhu was about to arrive, abandoned Chengdu and fled toward Qiao Daofu's camp. His daughter suggested that they commit suicide on the ancestral tombs, but Qiao Zong refused. When he met Qiao Daofu, Qiao Daofu rebuked him for abandoning Chengdu, and he threw his sword at Qiao Zong. Qiao Zong fled but, believing that he could not escape, committed suicide by hanging. Qiao Daofu tried to continue to resist, but his army collapsed, and he was captured and killed by Zhu. Western Shu was at its end.

Qifu Chipan

Qifu Chipan , formally Prince Wenzhao of Qin , was a prince of the /Xianbei state Western Qin. During his reign, Western Qin reached its prime after he destroyed and seized the territory of the rival state Southern Liang in 414, but it then began a gradual decline under attacks by and Northern Liang. When he died in 428, he left his state in a troubled position, and by 431, his state was destroyed, and his son Qifu Mumo captured and then killed by the Xia emperor Helian Ding.

During Qifu Gangui's first reign

It is not known when Qifu Shipan was born to his father Qifu Gangui, nor is it known for certain who his mother was. However, it appears likely that he was born prior to Western Qin's establishment by his uncle Qifu Guoren , because he was Qifu Gangui's oldest son, and it also appears likely that his mother was Qifu Gangui's wife . In 388, after Qifu Gangui died, Qifu Chipan became prince.

The first historical reference to Qifu Chipan was in 393, when Qifu Gangui created Qifu Chipan crown prince. By this point, he was already described as brave and intelligent, and more capable than his father. He quickly became a key official in his father's administration.

As Southern Liang and Later Qin subject

In 400, Qifu Gangui suffered a major defeat at the hands of the Later Qin emperor Yao Xing, and most of his state was seized by Later Qin. Qifu Gangui concluded that he could not sustain a state any more, and instructed his officials to surrender to Later Qin, while he himself surrendered to Southern Liang's prince Tufa Lilugu, who welcomed him as an honored guest. Tufa Lilugu's brother Tufa Juyan suspected Qifu Gangui's intentions, and suggested that Tufa Lilugu exile him to the Yifu tribe , a suggestion that Tufa Lilugu rejected. However, worried that Qifu Gangui would try to reestablish his state, he sent an army to watch over him. Qifu Gangui, fearing that he would be executed, then regained trust from Tufa Lilugu by sending Qifu Chipan, his brothers, and their mother to the Southern Liang capital Xiping as hostages. He himself, however, as soon as the Southern Liang guard was down, fled to Fuhan and surrendered to Later Qin.

It might have been around this time that Qifu Chipan married the of Tufa Lilugu's brother Tufa Rutan, and later, when Qifu Chipan tried to flee to Later Qin to join his father but was captured on the way, Tufa Rutan urged for his life against Tufa Lilugu's initial desire to execute him, and Tufa Lilugu agreed with Tufa Rutan. After Tufa Lilugu died in 402 and was succeeded by Tufa Rutan, Qifu Chipan successfully escaped and fled to his father, who by then had been made a key Later Qin general. Tufa Rutan sent Qifu Chipan's wife and children to him. Qifu Gangui, who was then in control of his old capital Wanchuan , sent Qifu Chipan to the Later Qin capital Chang'an to visit the emperor Yao Xing, and Yao Xing made him a commandery governor.

In 407, concerned that Qifu Gangui was becoming stronger and more difficult to control, Yao Xing detained him while he was visiting Chang'an, and had Qifu Chipan take over his post. Later that year, when Tufa Rutan, who had nominally been a Later Qin vassal, considered renouncing that status, he sent messengers to Qifu Chipan urging him to join the rebellion. Qifu Chipan beheaded Tufa Rutan's messengers and sent their heads to Chang'an.

In 408, believing that Later Qin was growing weaker, he built a castle at Kanglang Mountain to both prepare to defend himself against Later Qin's enemies and against a potential Later Qin campaign against him. In 409, he captured Fuhan from the Later Qin rebel Peng Xi'nian and secretly sent messengers to inform Qifu Gangui of this. Qifu Gangui, who was then attending Yao Xing at Pingliang , then escaped and fled back to Wanchuan to join him. Soon, Qifu Gangui moved his home base to Dujianshan but left Qifu Chipan in command of Fuhan. Late that year, Qifu Gangui redeclared independence with the title Prince of Qin, and he created Qifu Chipan crown prince again.

During Qifu Gangui's second reign

Qifu Chipan became the person that his father relied on the most on military matters. He made the scholar Jiao Yi Qifu Chipan's teacher, and told Qifu Chipan to serve Jiao like a father, and Qifu Chipan did so.

In 411, Qifu Gangui, after some campaigns against Later Qin, agreed to nominally resubmit at a vassal, and Yao Xing created him the Prince of Henan and Qifu Chipan the Duke of Pingchang. Later that year, Qifu Gangui sent Qifu Chipan and his brother Qifu Shenqian on a campaign against Southern Liang, and they had a major victory over Tufa Rutan's crown prince Tufa Hutai , capturing more than 100,000 animals.

In spring 412, Qifu Gangui moved the capital to Tanjiao , leaving Qifu Chipan in command of Wanchuan. In summer 412, while at Tanjiao, Qifu Gangui was assassinated by Qifu Guoren's son Qifu Gongfu , who also killed more than 10 brothers of Qifu Chipan. Qifu Gongfu then took up a defense position at Daxia . Qifu Chipan sent his brothers Qifu Zhida and Qifu Muyigan to attack Qifu Gongfu, while moving the capital to Fuhan. Qifu Zhida, meanwhile, defeated Qifu Gongfu and executed him, his sons, and his brother Qifu Achai . Qifu Chipan was now the undisputed heir, and he claimed the title Prince of Henan.

Early reign

Early in his reign, Qifu Chipan continued his state's expansion at the expense of Tuyuhun, Southern Liang and Later Qin, and he further forced local tribes which were not under his father's rule into submission.

In 414, upon receiving news that Tufa Rutan was attacking rebellious Tuoqihan and Yifu tribes, leaving Tufa Hutai in command of the Southern Liang capital Ledu , Qiifu Chipan decided to make a surprise attack on Ledu. He quickly arrived at Ledu and put it under siege. Soon, Ledu fell, and he relocated Tufa Hutai and his subordinates to Fuhan, while sending his army further to face Tufa Rutan. Tufa Rutan's troops, hearing that Ledu had fallen, collapsed, and Tufa Rutan surrendered, ending Southern Liang and allowing Qifu Chipan to seize the remaining Southern Liang territory. Qifu Chipan welcomed him as an honored guest, creating him the Duke of Zuonan, and created Tufa Rutan's daughter his princess. However, in 415 he poisoned Tufa Rutan to death.

Having annexed Southern Liang into his state, in 414 Qifu Chipan claimed the greater title of Prince of Qin. He also resumed his attacks on Later Qin. However, now that there was no longer Southern Liang serving as a buffer between them, he soon got into constant warfare with Northern Liang's prince Juqu Mengxun, often at Western Qin's expense. In 416, he made peace with Juqu Mengxun. Meanwhile, in 416, with Later Qin under major attack from the general , he sent messengers to Liu Yu offering to be a vassal, and Liu Yu gave him the title Duke of Henan. By 417, Liu Yu had destroyed Later Qin, but he did not further head west to attack Western Qin, which seized a number of Later Qin cities on the borders. By 418, however, Jin had against lost the Guanzhong region to 's emperor Helian Bobo, and Xia, strengthened by its victories over Jin, now posed a major threat against Western Qin.

Late reign

In 420, Qifu Chipan created his son Qifu Mumo crown prince. That year, Qifu Chipan also received a nominal commission as a major general from Liu Yu, who had by now seized the Jin throne and established Liu Song.

In 421, the peace with Northern Liang ended, perhaps because Northern Liang had destroyed Western Liang in 420 and now could concentrate on warfare with its southern neighbor Western Qin. The battles were often inconclusive, but the war continued to wear Western Qin down.

In 423, Qifu Chipan made the declaration to his officials that he now believed that Northern Wei was the state favored by the gods, and that its emperors were capable, and so he would offer to be a Northern Wei vassal. He then sent messengers to Northern Wei, offering suggestions on how to conquer Xia. In 426, he again requested that Northern Wei attack Xia.

Later in 426, Qifu Chipan would suffer a major defeat that would debilitate his state. He was attacking Northern Liang when Northern Liang's prince Juqu Mengxun persuaded the Xia emperor Helian Chang to attack Fuhan. Helian Chang, in response, sent his general Hulu Gu to attack Wanchuan and Wei Fa to attack Nan'an , and while Western Qin was able to hold Wanchuan, Nan'an fell, at great loss. In winter 426, Xia forces commanded by Hulu and Wei attacked Fuhan, forcing Qifu Gangui to move the capital to Dinglian , and Hulu and Wei then captured another important Western Qin city, Xiping , and while they then withdrew, Western Qin had been dealt a major blow.

In 427, Qifu Chipan moved his capital back to Fuhan, and hearing that Northern Wei had captured the Xia capital Tongwan and forced Helian Chang to flee to Shanggui , he sent his uncle Qifu Wotou to offer tributes to Northern Wei. By this point, however, Western Qin was also still under constant attack by Northern Liang and Chouchi.

In summer 428, Qifu Chipan, after telling Qifu Mumo to try to make peace with Northern Liang by returning Juqu Mengxun's advisor Juqu Chengdu , whom he had captured in 422), died, and Qifu Mumo succeeded him.

Era names

* ''Yongkang'' 412-419
* ''Jianhong'' 419-428

Personal information

* Father
** Qifu Gangui
* Wife
** Princess Tufa , daughter of Tufa Rutan, prince of Southern Liang
* Major Concubines
** Left Consort Tufa, daughter of Tufa Rutan
* Children
** Qifu Mumo , the Crown Prince , later prince
** Qifu Yuanji
** Qifu Keshuluo
** Qifu Chenglong

Tufa Lilugu

Tufa Lilugu , formally Prince Kang of Hexi , was a prince of the /Xianbei state Southern Liang. He was a younger brother of the founding prince Tufa Wugu . He was described as a capable ruler open to different opinions. He was also, somewhat contradictorily, described as having entrusted most important affairs of state to his talented brother Tufa Rutan, who was later succeed him as Prince Jing.

Before reign

The first historical reference to Tufa Lilugu was in 397, shortly after Tufa Wugu had declared independence from Later Liang and established Southern Liang. The fall of that year, Tufa Wugu sent him to assist the Later Liang rebel Guo Nen . In summer 398, he, along with another Later Liang rebel, Yang Gui , jointly battled Lü Zuan, the son of the Later Liang emperor Lü Guang, but was defeated by Lü Zuan, leading Yang Gui to eventually give up his rebellion and flee to Southern Liang. In 399, as part of Tufa Wugu's realignment of the state's defenses when moving the capital from Jincheng to Ledu , he was put in charge of Anyi . He was also described with the title Duke of Xiping at this point, although it was probably that Tufa Wugu created him with this title in 397, even though that was not mentioned. In summer 399, Tufa Wugu sent him to assist Northern Liang's prince Duan Ye when Northern Liang was under attack by Lü Zuan and Lü Guang's crown prince Lü Shao, forcing Lü Zuan and Lü Shao to withdraw. Soon thereafter, he was put in charge of the city of Xiping .

Later that year, Tufa Wugu suffered a serious horse-riding accident when drunk, and in his last words ordered that an older person be selected to succeed him. The Southern Liang nobles therefore selected Tufa Lilugu to succeed him.

Reign

After succeeding Tufa Wugu, Tufa Lilugu moved the capital from Ledu to Xiping. In early 400, Lü Zuan, who had by that point become the emperor of Later Liang, planned to attack him -- and Lü Zuan's official Yang Ying , in trying to persuade Lü Zuan not to attack, described Tufa Lilugu's regime as one "with an united heart, with subordinates who faithfully carried out his instructions, with no opportunity to take advantage of," a description, if accurate, speaks well of Tufa Lilugu. Indeed, when Lü Zuan attacked anyway notwithstanding Yang's words, Tufa Wugu sent Tufa Rutan against him and defeated him.

In summer 400, when Lü Zuan made a major attack on Northern Liang, Tufa Rutan, probably at Tufa Lilugu's instruction, made a surprise attack on the Later Liang capital Guzang , entering Guzang's eastern half and then retreating after successfully pillaging the city, forcing Lü Zuan to abandon his Northern Liang campaign.

Later that year, after Western Qin's prince Qifu Gangui was defeated by Later Qin, Qifu Gangui surrendered to Tufa Lilugu. Initially, Tufa Lilugu's brother Tufa Juyan suspected Qifu Gangui's sincerity and requested that Qifu Gangui be exiled to west of the Qinghai Lake -- a suggestion that Tufa Lilugu rejected on the grounds that if he did so, no one else would surrender to him. However, when Qifu Gangui subsequently redefected to Later Qin, Tufa Lilugu much regretted the decision not to exile or kill him. Later, when Qifu Gangui's son Qifu Chipan tried to defect as well to join his father, Tufa Lilugu was prepared to execute him, but at Tufa Rutan's urging , did not do so.

In spring 401, at the urging of many of his officials, Tufa Lilugu considered declaring himself emperor. However, he accepted the advice from the general Tou Wulun that such a declaration would make him a target for others, and did not do so; rather, he only changed his title from Prince of Wuwei to Prince of Hexi, signifying a claim over the region west of the Yellow River. Later that year, he personally made a successful attack against Later Liang's emperor Lü Long .

Later in 401, there was an exchange between Tufa Lilugu and his official Shi Gao that might have demonstrated both Tufa Lilugu's strengths and weaknesses as a ruler. This was at an occasion when Tufa Lilugu ordered his officials to offer frank criticism of his rule. Shi Gao, in response, said:

:''Each time, when your majesty sent generals on military campaigns, no one could oppose them. However, they do not treat pacifying the populace as the priority, but rather concentrated on relocating them. The people like stability in life and fear unfamiliar locales. That is why many people rebel or escape. This is why we continuously kill enemy generals and capture enemy cities, but our lands do not increase.''

Tufa Lilugu agreed with Shi. However, there was no record of Tufa Lilugu changing his policies due to Shi's suggestions. Indeed, for the rest of Tufa Lilugu's reigns, there were continued references to forcible movements of people by Southern Liang troops.

Despite this, by this point, Tufa Lilugu's power appeared evident, so much so that in fall 401, the new prince of Northern Liang, Juqu Mengxun, was forced to send his son Juqu Xinian as a hostage to Tufa Lilugu to show his submission. Tufa Lilugu, however, rejected Juqu Xinian as a hostage, stating that Juqu Xinian was too young and he wanted Juqu Mengxun to send his brother Juqu Ru -- a major strategist and general for Juqu Mengxun. Juqu Mengxun initially refused -- stating that he needed Juqu Ru to assist him -- which drew anger from Tufa Lilugu, who sent Tufa Juyan the Marquess of Zhangsong and another brother, Tufa Wenzhi the Marquess of Xingcheng against Northern Liang and captured Juqu Mengxun's cousin Juqu Shanshan'gouzi . Juqu Mengxun made a humbler submission after that point and sent his uncle Juqu Kongzhe to promise to sent Juqu Ru as a hostage, before Tufa Lilugu would withdraw his troops and return the people they captured. However, Tufa Lilugu himself was aware of his own power's limitations, and he also nominally submitted to Yao Xing, the emperor of Later Qin, sending tributes to Yao Xing, and in 401, when Later Qin attacked Later Liang, he ordered his troops to withdraw to yield a path for Later Qin troops.

Around the new year 402, in response to a request for assistance from the Later Liang rebel Jiao Lang , Tufa Lilugu sent Tufa Rutan to assist Jiao, and Tufa Rutan and Jiao then attacked Guzang, dealing Later Liang a major defeat. Oddly enough, however, when Northern Liang attacked Later Liang in spring 402, Tufa Lilugu sent Tufa Rutan to aid Later Liang, although by the time Tufa Rutan arrived, Northern Liang had already retreated.

Later in spring 402, Tufa Lilugu grew ill, and he instructed that the state be entrusted to Tufa Rutan. After Tufa Lilugu died, Tufa Rutan succeeded him as Prince Jing.

Era name

* ''Jianhe'' 400-402

Personal information

* Father
** Tufa Sifujian , Xianbei tribal chief

Tufa Rutan

Tufa Rutan , formally Prince Jing of Liang) , was the last prince of the /Xianbei state Southern Liang. As he was the son that his father, the Xianbei chief Tufa Sifujian , considered most talented, his older brothers, the founding prince Tufa Wugu and Tufa Lilugu both decided to pass the throne to a brother, intending that he receive the throne. However, Tufa Rutan, while obviously talented as a general, is viewed by historians as being overly aggressive in waging military campaigns, and he greatly drained the resources of the Southern Liang people while doing so. Southern Liang's strength particularly waned after a major 407 defeat at the hand of the emperor , and it drew attacks from its neighbors Northern Liang and Western Qin. Eventually, Tufa Rutan was forced to surrender to Western Qin in 414 after Western Qin captured his capital Ledu , and he was poisoned to death a year later.

During the reigns of Tufa Wugu and Tufa Lilugu

After Tufa Wugu founded Southern Liang in 397 by breaking away from Later Liang, Tufa Rutan immediately began to play a major role in the military and governmental affairs of the state. In 398, Tufa Wugu sent him to assist the Later Liang rebels Yang Gui and Guo Nen . In spring 399, after Tufa Wugu moved the capital from Lianchuan to Ledu in a major realignment of his military strengths, Tufa Rutan was put in charge of the important city of Xiping , and by this time, he was referred to by the title of Duke of Guangwu, a title that Tufa Wugu himself had carried earlier. In summer 399, Tufa Wugu recalled him to Ledu to head his government, while replacing him at Xiping with Tufa Lilugu.

Later in 399, Tufa Wugu suffered a serious injury while horseriding when drunk, and, because his last words were that the state should be entrusted to someone old, was succeeded by Tufa Lilugu. Tufa Lilugu entrusted all important governmental matters to him and effectively designated him as the next prince.

In 400, when the Later Liang emperor Lü Zuan attacked Northern Liang, Tufa Rutan launched a raid at the Later Liang capital Guzang , entering the city and, while not staying permanently in the city, held a feast in the city and forced 8,000 households to relocate back to Southern Liang with him.

Later in 400, when, in light of defeats by Later Qin, the Western Qin prince Qifu Gangui surrendered to Tufa Lilugu, Tufa Lilugu sent Tufa Rutan to welcome him. It might have been at this time that Tufa Rutan gave a daughter in marriage to Qifu Gangui's son Qifu Chipan, but it is not completely clear. What is clear is that later in the year, Qifu Gangui took flight again and surrendered to Later Qin, and when Qifu Chipan tried to join Qifu Gangui but was detained, it was at Tufa Rutan's suggestion that killing Qifu Chipan for wanting to join his father would appear narrow-minded that Tufa Lilugu did not execute Qifu Chipan.

It was around this time when Later Liang's general Jiang Ji surrendered to Southern Liang. Tufa Rutan, impressed by Jiang's talent, befriended him and spent much time with him, despite Tufa Lilugu's distrust of Jiang. Jiang, however, soon turned against Southern Liang and fled to Later Qin, offering its emperor Yao Xing strategies on conquering Later Liang and resisting Southern Liang.

Around the new year 402, the Later Liang rebel Jiao Lang sought aid from Southern Liang, and Tufa Lilugu sent Tufa Rutan to aid him, but when Tufa Rutan arrived, Jiao would not receive him. Tufa Rutan initially was angry and wanted to attack Jiao instead, but at the suggestion of his brother Tufa Juyan reconciled with Jiao and jointly attacked Guzang and, while not capturing the city at the time, dealt the Later Liang general Lü Chao a major defeat. Later that year, however, when Later Liang was attacked by Northern Liang's prince Juqu Mengxun, Tufa Rutan came to Later Liang's aid. He soon arrested Jiao and delivered him to Tufa Lilugu as well.

Later in 402, Tufa Lilugu died from illness, and he left instructions that the throne be passed to Tufa Rutan. Tufa Rutan accepted, and moved the capital from Xiping back to Ledu.

Early reign

Tufa Rutan did not relent in his military pressure against Later Liang, and his attacks against Later Liang continued to have a destabilizing effect on Later Liang. He nominally agreed to be a Later Qin vassal, and was created the Duke of Guangwu, although he continued to internally use the title Prince of Hexi, which Tufa Lilugu used.

In summer 402, Qifu Chipan escaped and joined his father Qifu Gangui. Tufa Rutan delivered Qifu Chipan's wife and children to him.

In 403, in light of pressure from Tufa Rutan and Juqu Mengxun, Lü Long decided to end his state, surrendering Guzang to Later Qin. Tufa Rutan, apprehensive of Later Qin's power, withdrew his troops to allow Later Qin forces through to Guzang to receive Lü Long and the city. In 404, he further ended his nominal independence by ending the use of his own era name and instead using Later Qin's to show allegiance to Later Qin. He stopped using his own princely title, and used only the Later Qin-created title of Duke of Guangwu. He also made a request to Yao Xing that he be allowed to have Guzang, but Yao Xing refused.

Middle reign

While Southern Liang and Northern Liang had both become Later Qin vassals, they started sporadic but incessant warring with each other after their joint enemy, Later Liang, ceased existence. In 406, Tufa Rutan attacked Northern Liang but after Juqu Mengxun refused to engage him, withdrew, and he made a tribute of 3,000 horses and 30,000 horses to Yao Xing, greatly touching Yao Xing and making him believing in Tufa Rutan's loyalty, and so he commissioned Tufa Rutan with governorship of Liang Province , giving him Guzang. Later that year, Tufa Rutan moved his capital from Ledu to Guzang. He also entered into an alliance with Western Liáng's duke Li Gao, aimed against Northern Liang.

While Tufa Rutan was nominally a Later Qin vassal, he did not actually wish to serve Yao Xing long, and in 407 he proposed to Qifu Chipan an alliance, but Qifu Chipan executed his messengers and delivered their heads to Yao Xing. Still, at this time, Southern Liang's power was at its apex.

At this time, though, a major defeat would cause Southern Liang's strength to begin to wane. In winter 407, the Later Qin rebel Liu Bobo, who had earlier that year broken from Later Qin and established , requested to marry Tufa Rutan's daughter. Tufa Rutan refused, and in anger Liu Bobo launched a punitive raid against Southern Liang but then retreated. Tufa Rutan gave chase and, believing that he greatly outpowered Liu Bobo, was careless in his military actions. Liu Bobo led him into a canyon and then blocked the exit with ice and wagons, and then ambushed him -- and the defeat was such that it was said that 60% to 70% of Southern Liang's famed officials and generals died in the battle. Tufa Rutan barely escaped capture. In fear, Tufa Rutan ordered that all of the people within 150 kilometers of Guzang be moved into the capital, which immediately led to mass panic and a rebellion by the Xiongnu chief Cheng Qi'er . While Cheng's rebellion was defeated, Tufa Rutan's domain had been greatly wounded.

In light of Tufa Rutan's defeat, Yao Xing plotted his destruction, despite the advice of Wei Zong , an official of his who had personal knowledge of Tufa Rutan's ability, against such action. In 408, he commissioned his son Yao Bi the Duke of Guangping to lead a large force with generals Lian Cheng and Qifu Gangui to make a surprise attack on Southern Liang -- tricking Tufa Rutan into initially not resisting by informing him that the army was intended to be part of a pincer movement against Xia. Only when the Later Qin forces reached Guzang's vicinity did Tufa Rutan realize what the purpose of the campaign was, and he defended the city against Yao Bi. When a rebellion inside the city itself, led by Wang Zhong , threatened to cause the city to fall, Tufa Rutan buried some 5,000 people alive, and he then defeated Yao Bi. When Yao Xing sent Yao Xian the Duke of Changshan to aid Yao Bi, Tufa Rutan defeated him as well, and Yao Xian, in fear, blamed Lian for the entire campaign and apologized to Tufa Rutan, and then withdrew with Yao Bi. Tufa Rutan also sent a messenger to Chang'an to request forgiveness.

In winter 408, Tufa Rutan again declared independence, and claimed the title of Prince of Liang, in light of Later Qin's defeats at his own hands and at the hands of Liu Bobo. He created his wife princess, and his son Tufa Hutai crown prince.

Late reign

The redeclaration of independence might have been intended to show strength, but by this point Southern Liang was in definite trouble, being in constant draining warfare with Northern Liang and Qifu Gangui's Western Qin, and historians generally view Tufa Rutan as responsible for the continued deterioration of Southern Liang's strength by continuing to initiate wars as well despite the obvious fatigue his state was suffering.

In 410, one of Tufa Rutan's campaigns would hurt him greatly. He attacked Northern Liang and forced 1,000 households to move to his state. In retaliation, Juqu Mengxun pillaged a larger number of households from his state, and when Tufa Rutan's broughter Tufa Juyan responded, Juqu Mengxun defeated him. When Tufa Rutan himself followed with a larger force, Juqu Mengxun defeated him as well, and then advanced on Guzang and put it under siege. The residents of Guzang, remembering the massacre that Tufa Rutan carried out during Wang Zhong's rebellion, panicked, and a large number surrendered to Juqu Mengxun. With his general Zhequ Qizhen also rebelling to the south, Tufa Rutan became apprehensive, and moved the capital from Guzang back to Ledu. The general Jiao Lang quickly rebelled and held Guzang, although Juqu Mengxun conquered it in 411, and then advanced on Ledu, sieging it for more than a month before Tufa Rutan submitted by sending his son Tufa Anzhou to Juqu Mengxun as a hostage.

However, Tufa Rutan soon again planned revenge, and later that year he launched another attack on Northern Liang, which was initially successful, but his army withdrew at an overly leisurely pace, and when the weather turned against him, Juqu Mengxun caught him and defeated him, again sieging Ledu, forcing him to then send his son Tufa Rangan as a hostage so that Juqu Mengxun would withdraw.

In 413, Tufa Rutan launched yet another campaign against Northern Liang, and was again defeated. Juqu Mengxun again put Ledu under siege but could not capture it. However, Tufa Rutan's general Tufa Wenzhi then rebelled, encouraging Juqu Mengxun to launch a new attack. Tufa Rutan was forced to send his brother Juqu Juyan to Northern Liang as a hostage.

In 414, the Tuoqihan and Yifu tribes rebelled, and despite the state of desperation Southern Liang was in, Tufa Rutan, leaving his crown prince Tufa Hutai in command at Ledu, launched an attack against Yifu -- which was quite successful. However, Qifu Chipan, who had by this point succeeded Qifu Gangui as Western Qin's prince, launched an attack on Ledu, sieging it. Tufa Hutai panicked, and forced the in the city into the inner citadel because he distrusted them, greatly weakening his own defense force, and Ledu fell. Tufa Hutai was captured.

Tufa Rutan's nephew Tufa Fani escaped and informed Tufa Rutan what had happened. Tufa Rutan informed his troops that his plans were then to attack the Tuoqihan tribe, and then use the proceeds from the pillaging to ransom the people of Ledu from Western Qin. However, the troops, upon hearing the news, collapsed and deserted him. Tufa Rutan was forced to surrender to Western Qin as well.

After end of Southern Liang

Qifu Chipan initially treated Tufa Rutan as an honored guest. He created Tufa Rutan the Duke of Zuonan and his princess. However, in 415, he secretly had Tufa Rutan poisoned. After he was poisoned, Tufa Rutan realized what was happening, and refused all treatment. He died soon thereafter. In 423, Tufa Rutan and Princess Tufa, who plotted to try to avenge him, were discovered and executed by Tufa Chipan as well.

Era names

* ''Hongchang'' 402-404
* ''Jiaping'' 409-414

Personal information

* Father
** Tufa Sifujian , Xianbei tribal chief
* Wife
** Princess Zhejue
* Children
** Tufa Hutai , the Crown Prince
** Tufa Anzhou
** Tufa Rangan
** Tufa Baozhou
** Tufa He , later changed name to Yuan He
** A daughter, later Princess Tufa of Western Qin
** A daughter, later Qifu Chipan's Left Consort

Yao Xing

Yao Xing , courtesy name Zilue , formally Emperor Wenhuan of Qin , was an emperor of the /Qiang state Later Qin. He was the son of the founding emperor Yao Chang . For most of his reign, he did not use the title of emperor, but used the title Heavenly Prince . During his reign, he destroyed the rival Former Qin and proceeded to expand his hegemony over nearly all of western China, as he temporarily seized all of Western Qin's territory and forced Southern Liang, Northern Liang, Western Liáng, and Qiao Zong's Western Shu all to at least nominally submit to him, but late in his reign, defeats on the battlefield, particularly at the hands of the rebel general Helian Bobo , and internecine struggles between his sons and nephews greatly damaged the Later Qin state, and it was destroyed soon after his death. Yao Xing was an avid Buddhist, and it was during his reign that Buddhism first received official state support in China. The monk Kumarajiva also visited Chang'an at Yao Xing's request in 401.

Before and during Yao Chang's reign

Yao Xing was born in 366, when his father Yao Chang was a general under the Former Qin emperor Fu Jiān. Not much is known about his life under Former Qin rule, other than that when he grew older, he served as an assistant to Fu Jiān's crown prince Fu Hong .

When Yao Chang declared a rebellion and established Later Qin in 384, Yao Xing was at the Former Qin capital Chang'an, and he immediately fled to his father. For the next several years, as Yao Chang fought with Former Qin and Western Yan, Yao Xing was often entrusted with guarding the base of operations , while his father engaged in campaigns. In 386, after Yao Chang declared himself emperor, he created Yao Xing crown prince. He was considered to be firm and gracious, and he spent much time studying literature despite the work necessary in maintaining home base. In 392, while Yao Chang was away on a campaign, Yao Xing, at the suggestion of the general Yao Fangcheng , executed a number of Former Qin generals whom Yao Chang had taken captive earlier. While Yao Chang was angry on the surface, he appeared to be secretly happy that Yao Xing realized the danger that these generals posed. In 393, when the Former Qin emperor Fu Deng attacked the Later Qin vassal Dou Chong , Yao Chang, at the suggestion of the prime minister Yin Wei , sent Yao Xing against Fu Deng, in order to establish Yao Xing's authority over the troops. Yao Xing was able to stop Fu Deng's attack on Dou fairly easily.

Around the new year 393, Yao Chang fell seriously ill. He told Yao Xing, on his death bed, to trust the several officials that he entrusted his administration with -- Yin, Yao Huang , Yao Damu , and Di Bozhi . When Yao Huang asked Yao Chang for strategies to defeat Fu Deng, Yao Chang refused to answer, merely stating that he trusted that Yao Xing would be able to accomplish it. He soon died, and Yao Xing succeeded him, although initially not keeping Yao Chang's death a secret and entrusting the troops to his uncles Yao Xu and Yao Shuode and his brother Yao Chóng , while preparing a campaign against Former Qin.

Early reign: establishment of Later Qin as regional power

Despite Yao Xing's hopes of keeping his father's death a secret, Fu Deng received news of it anyway -- and immediately prepared a major attack against Later Qin. Fu Deng had his brother Fu Guang defend the base of Yongcheng and Fu Chong defend the base of Hu Kong Castle , and, in his anxiety, did not make sure that his army had sufficient water supply. Yao Xing set up his army at Mawei to prevent Former Qin forces from reaching the river near Mawei, and Former Qin forces were stricken by thirst, but still fought harder. Yao Xing initially ordered Yin to be cautious, but Yin, realizing the trouble the Former Qin forces were already in and believing that morale would be destroyed if he undertook a cautious strategy, fought back fervently, and the Former Qin forces collapsed. Upon hearing the defeat, Fu Deng's brother Fu Guang and son Fu Chong abandoned the two bases that they were holding, and Fu Deng was unable to recapture them. He then sought help from the prince of Western Qin, Qifu Gangui, who sent a relief force headed by Qifu Yizhou . As Fu Deng sought to join up with Qifu Yizhou, Yao Xing ambushed and captured him, and then executed him. He disbanded Fu Deng's troops and gave Fu Deng's to Yao Huang. Fu Deng's crown prince Fu Chong would assume imperial title and attempt to resist Later Qin a few months longer, but later in the year died in battle against Western Qin after Qifu Gangui turned against him, ending Former Qin. Later Qin assumed nearly all of Former Qin's remaining territory. Around the new year 395, Later Qin established peace with Later Yan, thus obviating likelihood of war on the eastern border -- although later in 395, when Later Yan's crown prince Murong Bao carried out a disastrous campaign against Northern Wei's prince , Later Qin sent a relief force to aid Northern Wei, although Later Qin forces did not actually engage Later Yan. Further, in 397, with Later Yan under heavy attack by Northern Wei after its founding emperor Murong Chui died and was replaced by Murong Bao, Later Qin refused to provide aid to Later Yan.

Later in 397, Empress Dowager She died. Yao Xing was described to be in such great mourning that he was unable to handle matters of state for some time. After that had passed, however, he continued to wear mourning clothes.

Overall, during this period, Yao Xing was described by historians as diligent and willing to listen to different opinions, ruling the empire efficiently. He engaged in a number of campaigns on the various borders, enlarging Later Qin's territories and influence.

In 399, Yao Xing sent his brother Yao Chóng the Duke of Qi and the general Yang Foxong to attack the important city of Luoyang, and in winter 399 captured Luoyang and the surrounding cities.

Also in 399, Yao Xing, in response to astrological signs that were considered signs of disaster, stopped claiming the title of emperor, instead using the title "Heavenly Prince" , to show humility to the gods. He also accordingly demoted his officials and noble by one rank.

In 400, Yao Xing sent his uncle Yao Shuode the Duke of Longxi to launch a major attack against Western Qin. Despite Western Qin's initial success in cutting of Yao Shuode's supply line, Yao Xing himself led a force to aid yao Shuode, defeating Western Qin's prince Qifu Gangui in battle, nearly capturing Qifu Gangui's entire army and proceeding to take most of Western Qin's cities. Qifu Gangui himself surrendered to Southern Liang's prince Tufa Lilugu, thus temporarily ending Western Qin's existence. In fall 400, believing that he was being suspected by Tufa Lilugu, Qifu Gangui fled from Southern Liang and surrendered to Later Qin. Yao Xing created him the Marquess of Guiyi and, in 401, took the unusual action of giving Qifu Gangui his army back and ordering him to defend his old capital Wanchuan , and while Qifu Gangui was in name a Later Qin general, he acted independently at times.

Later in 401, Yao Xing, under suggestion from Yao Shuode, launched a major attack against Later Liang. To avoid conflict, Tufa Lilugu ordered Southern Liang forces to yield a path for Later Qin forces, and Yao Shuode therefore easily reached the Later Liang capital Guzang , putting the city under siege. Southern Liang, Northern Liang, and Western Liang all sent messengers submitting as vassals. After two months of siege, Later Liang's emperor Lü Long also submitted as a vassal, and was given the title Duke of Jiankang, although he remained in control of Guzang and continued to use the Heavenly Prince title internally as well. Northern Liang's duke Juqu Mengxun became so apprehensive that he offered to yield his territory and relocate his entire army into Later Qin proper, but later reneged on the promise, although he remained Later Qin vassal for years.

Middle reign: entrechment and stagnation

Around the new year 402, Northern Wei attacked the Later Qin vassal Mo Yigan , and this led to the breakdown of relations between Northern Wei and Later Qin. When Northern Wei's Emperor Daowu sought marriage with Later Qin, Yao Xing, because of this and because he heard that Emperor Daowu already had as his wife, refused. In summer 402, Yao Xing personally led a major attack against Northern Wei, which had by this point taken over nearly all of Later Yan's territory north of the Yellow River. In fall 402, Yao Xing's forward commander Yao Ping the Duke of Yiyang was surrounded by Northern Wei's Emperor Daowu at Chaibi , and despite counterattacks by both Yao Ping and Yao Xing, the Northern Wei siege became increasingly tighter, and in winter 402, Yao Ping and his army were captured following a failed attempt to break out, ending Yao Xing's campaign against Northern Wei.

Also in 402, Yao Xing created his concubine empress. He also created his son Yao Hong as crown prince and other sons as dukes.

Around this time, Yao Xing also appeared to have become a devout Buddhist, under the influence of the monk Kumarajiva. This appeared to have a major influence on his actions later on -- as he appeared to avoid decisive actions that may lead to many deaths, while trying to act gently toward his enemies. This had an unfortunately deleterious effect on his empire, which, for the most part, stopped expanding. In 405, he gave Kumaraijiva an honorific title, treating him like a god, and often led his officials in listening to Kumaraijiva's sermons. At his request, Kumarajiva translated more than 300 sutras into Chinese. Yao Xing also built many towers and temples. Because of his influence, it was described that 90% of the population became Buddhists.

In 403, with his Later Liang state continuously under attack by Northern Liang and Southern Liang, Lü Long surrendered the Guzang region -- the only territory still remaining under Later Liang control -- to Later Qin, thus ending Later Liang. Yao Xing moved Lü Long and his clan to Chang'an and made him and his brother Lü Chao officials. However, because Northern Liang and Southern Liang were only nominal vassals, Guzang was effectively a lone island of Later Qin control. In 404, Southern Liang's prince Tufa Rutan stopped claiming princely title and using his own era name, in a further showing of submission to Later Qin, although internally he remained effectively independent.

In 405, at the request of the Jin general , Yao Xing returned 12 commanderies that had switched their allegiance from Jin to Later Qin during the Jin civil war from 398 to 405, despite his officials' opposition.

In 406, in response to Tufa Rutan's tribute of 3,000 horses and 30,000 sheep, Yao Xing became so touched that he yielded Guzang to Tufa Rutan, thus ending Later Qin's actual control of the Guzang region.

In 407, believing that Qifu Gangui was becoming difficult to control, when Qifu Gangui arrived in Chang'an for an official visit, he detained Qifu Gangui to be a civilian official, while giving command of Qifu Gangui's army to Qifu Gangui's heir apparent, Qifu Chipan.

Later in 407, Later Qin and Northern Wei agreed to peace -- returning previously captured generals to each other. The Later Qin general Liu Bobo , who was then in charge of Shuofang , because his father Liu Weichen had been killed by Northern Wei forces in 391, became angry and declared a rebellion, establishing . Liu Bobo used guerilla tactics against Later Qin, wearing Later Qin's armies and cities down. From this point on, Later Qin began to decline.

Late reign: gradual weakening of Later Qin

In 407, Murong Chao, the emperor of Southern Yan, whose mother and wife were then in Later Qin, requested to have them delivered to Southern Yan. Yao Xing agreed to do so if Murong Chao would agree to be a vassal and either deliver Former Qin palatial musicians or 1,000 Jin citizens to Later Qin, before his request would be agreed. Murong Chao agreed to yield as vassal, and delivered the musicians to Later Qin. Yao Xing then delivered his mother and wife to him, along with gifts.

Also in 407, Qiao Zong, who had taken control of Jin's Yi Province and declared himself the Prince of Chengdu, became a Later Qin vassal.

In 408, noticing that Southern Liang was under severe attack by its neighbors , Yao Xing launched a campaign to try to destroy Southern Liang, despite opposition by his official Wei Zong , who felt that Tufa Rutan would not be defeated easily. He commissioned his son Yao Bi the Duke of Guangping along with Qifu Gangui and Lian Cheng to attack Southern Liang, while simultaneously commission Qi Nan to attack Xia. Both ventures ended badly. Yao Bi and later Yao Xian the Duke of Changshan were defeated by Tufa Rutan, and Yao Xing was forced to agree to a new peace with Southern Liang while having lost prestige based on the defeat. Even more disastrous was the Qi's mission, however, as Qi fell into a trap laid by Liu Bobo and was captured with his entire army, causing all of modern northern Shaanxi to fall into Xia hands. Later in 408, Tufa Rutan effectively repudiated his vassal status by again claiming the title Prince of Liang and changing era name.

Around this time, there also began to be increasing tendencies by Yao Xing's brothers and sons to plot to take over power. For example, in 409, his brother Yao Chōng tried to force Di Bozhi to join him in a plot to attack Chang'an, and when Di refused, poisoned Di to death, but was discovered later and forced to commit suicide.

Also in 409, Qifu Gangui escaped and returned to Wanchuan to join his son Qifu Chipan. He soon redeclared independence and reestablished Western Qin as its prince. He soon launched several campaigns against Later Qin and inflicted substantial damage, although he would apologize in 411 and again declared himself a Later Qin vassal. Later that year, however, he resumed his attacks.

Later in 409, the Jin general Liu Yu launched a major attack on Southern Yan, which sought aid from Later Qin. Initially, Yao Xing sent messengers to try to persuade Liu Yu to withdraw, and also sent a relief force commanded by Yao Qiang , but was forced to withdraw Yao Qiang's force when he suffered a major loss at Liu Bobo's hands and was nearly captured. Without aid from Later Qin, Southern Yan fell to Jin in early 410.

Later in 410, at Qiao Zong's request, Yao Xing sent an army commanded by Gou Lin to join Qiao Zong's army, commanded by Huan Qian and Qiao Daofu to attack Jin's Jing Province . However, Liu Yu's brother Liu Daogui defeated both armies, killing Huan Qian and forcing Gou to flee.

As of 411, Yao Bi, who was greatly favored by Yao Xing, was deep into a conspiracy to try to undermine the crown prince Yao Hong.

In 412, Qifu Gangui was assassinated by his nephew Qifu Gongfu , the son of the founding prince Qifu Guoren. Many Later Qin officials try to persuade Yao Xing to take the opportunity, as Qifu Gongfu and Qifu Chipan battled for control of the state, to attack Western Qin. Yao Xing refused, believing it improper to attack a state that was still mourning.

Also in 412, Yao Xing created his concubine empress.

In 413, Liu Yu's general Zhu Lingshi attacked Qiao Zong's Western Shu state and destroyed it, reannexing it to Jin. Yao Xing, although Western Shu's suzerain, was unable to aid it.

In 414, Yao Bi made several attempts to be made crown prince by having officials close to him suggesting Yao Xing to replace Yao Hong with him. Yao Xing refused, but did not rebuke Yao Bi. Yao Xing grew seriously ill that year, and Yao Bi planned a coup to take over. His brother Yao Yu revealed his plot to the other brothers Yao Yi, Yao Huang, Yao Chen, and Yao Xuan, who mobilized their own forces to be ready to attack Yao Bi if necessary. Yao Xing was forced to relieve Yao Bi of his posts, and the other sons demobilized and arrived at Chang'an for an official visit. The sons accused Yao Bi of many crimes, but Yao Xing took no further action. Indeed, in 415, Yao Bi retailiated by falsely accusing Yao Xuan of crimes, and Yao Xing arrested Yao Xuan.

In summer 415, the Jin general Sima Xiuzhi , having been forced to escape after Liu Yu attacked him, fled to Later Qin. Yao Xing commissioned Sima Xiuzhi with an army to let him harass Jin borders, despite warnings by his officials of a prophecy that the Simas would regain Guanzhong and the Luoyang region.

In fall 415, Yao Xing fell ill again, and Yao Bi secretly gathered forces again to plan a coup. Yao Xing found out and arrested Yao Bi, but at Yao Hong's urging did not execute him but instead released him.

In winter 415, Yao Xing sent his daughter, the Princess Xiping, to Northern Wei to be married to Emperor Daowu's son , in order to affirm the alliance between the two states. Emperor Mingyuan welcomed her with the ceremony due an empress. However, Princess Xiping was unable to forge a golden statue, as required by Tuoba Tribe traditions to be a sign of divine favor, to become an empress, so she was only created an imperial consort, but she was treated with the honors due an empress.

In 416, Yao Xing went on a trip to Huayin , near Chang'an, and fell ill on the trip and headed back to Chang'an. His attendant Yin Chong -- one of Yao Bi's supporters -- planned to then assassinate Yao Hong as Yao Hong would come out of the city to welcome Yao Xing. Yao Hong's supporters received news of this and persuaded Yao Hong not to come out to welcome Yao Xing. Yin's assistant Yao Shami then tried to persuade Yin to take Yao Xing and join with Yao Bi to seize power, but Yin hesitated and did not do so. Once Yao Xing returned to the Chang'an palace, he transferred power to Yao Hong and ordered Yao Bi arrested. Meanwhile, Yao Xing's son Yao Geng'er , believing that Yao Xing had died, persuaded his brother Yao Yin the Duke of Nanyang to start a coup, and Yao Yin joined with Yin Chong to attack the palace, battling with Yao Hong's troops. Yao Xing, despite his illness, made an appearance and announced an edict ordering Yao Bi to commit suicide. As soon as Yao Yin's troops saw Yao Xing, they abandoned Yao Yin. That night, Yao Xing entrusted Yao Hong's administration to his brother Yao Shao the Duke of Dongping, Liang Xi , Yin Zhao , and Lian Manwei , and he died the next day. Yao Hong succeeded him, but he soon had to face even more challenges from his brothers and cousins as well as attacks by Xia and Jin, and by 417 Later Qin had fallen to Jin.

Era names

* ''Huangchu'' 394-399
* ''Hongshi'' 399-416

Personal information

* Father
** Yao Chang
* Mother
** Empress She
* Wives
**
** Empress Qi
* Children
** Yao Hong , the Crown Prince , later emperor
** Yao Yi , the Duke of Taiyuan
** Yao Bi , the Duke of Guangping
** Yao Huang , the Duke of Chenliu
** Yao Xuan , Duke
** Yao Chen , Duke
** Yao Yin , the Duke of Nanyang
** Yao Pu , the Duke of Pingyuan
** Yao Zhi , Duke
** Yao Kui , Duke
** Yao Yu , Duke
** Yao Guoer , Duke
** Yao Geng'er
** Yao Huangmei , Duke of Longxi of Northern Wei
** , concubine of Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei

Feng Ba

Feng Ba , courtesy name Wenqi , nickname Qizhifa , formally Emperor Wencheng of Yan , was an emperor of the state Northern Yan. He became emperor after , whom he supported in a 407 coup that overthrew Murong Xi of Later Yan, was assassinated in 409. During his reign, Northern Yan largely maintained its territorial integrity but made no headway against the much stronger rival Northern Wei. He was said to have had more than 100 sons, but after his death in 430, his brother and successor Feng Hong had them all executed.

Family background and early life

Feng Ba's grandfather Feng He was ethnically and was said to have settled down in Shangdang Commandery in the aftermaths of the conquest of the northern half of during the reign of Emperor Huai of Jin by Han Zhao. Feng Ba's father Feng An later served the Western Yan emperor Murong Yong as a general. When Western Yan was destroyed by the Later Yan emperor Murong Chui in 394, Feng An's household was forcibly moved to Helong , where Feng Ba grew up, apparently under heavy Xianbei influence, for his nickname Qizhifa suggested Xianbei origin. He had three younger brothers, all of whom admired heroic behavior and largely ignored social restraints, but Feng Ba himself was considered to be careful and diligent, managing his household well. During Murong Bao's reign, he became a general. He came to respect Murong Bao's adoptive son the Duke of Zhaoyang, and they became great friends.

Later, in 407, during the reign of Murong Bao's cruel and capricious younger brother Murong Xi, both Feng Ba and his brother Feng Sufu somehow offended Murong Xi, and they hid themselves in the countryside. They concluded that they would eventually be found and killed anyway, and therefore resolved to overthrow Murong Xi. They reentered Longcheng, then capital, in secret, and then, when Murong Xi left Longcheng to bury his wife Empress Fu Xunying, who died earlier that year, they rose within the city with the assistance of their cousin Feng Wani and the generals Sun Hu and Zhang Xing . Because Feng Ba and Murong Yun were friends, he persuaded Murong Yun to serve as their leader, and they quickly captured the palace and closed the city gates. Murong Yun was then declared Heavenly Prince.

Murong Xi returned to Longcheng and settled in outside, at Longteng Chateau, preparing an assault on the city. At this time, the imperial guard soldier Chu Tou fled to him and informed him that the imperial guards were ready to turn against Murong Yun as soon as Murong Xi attacked. However, for reasons unknown, Murong Xi panicked at this news and fled. His general Murong Ba tried to maintain the assault against Longcheng and was initially successful, but as the troops began to realize that Murong Xi had fled, they collapsed, and Murong Ba was killed by Feng Ba's soldiers. Later that day, Murong Xi was found, wearing civilian clothes, in a forest, and he was captured and delivered to Murong Yun. Murong Yun personally read him his crimes, and then beheaded him and his sons.

During Gao Yun's reign

Because Feng Ba was instrumental in his becoming emperor, Murong Yun, who soon after he became emperor changed his name back to the original Gao Yun, made Feng Ba his prime minister, and Feng Ba's brothers and cousin Feng Wani, as well as other members of the uprising, received high posts as well. Effectively, the government was in Feng Ba's hands.

Because Gao Yun was insecure about how he felt he had little contributions to the people or to his own place on the throne, he employed many skillful guards to protect him. He further began to favor two jesters named Li Ban and Tao Ren , to have Li and Tao be in charge of security. He awarded them with great wealth, and their foods and clothes could match those of Gao Yun himself. Despite this, he was assassinated in winter 409 -- an event that is mysterious in its cause and scope. Traditional histories, including the ''Jin Shu'' and the ''Zizhi Tongjian'', record that Li and Tao, despite Gao Yun's favors to them, were still not satisfied, and they assassinated Gao Yun out of that dissatisfaction. Yet, this does not appear to be a true reason for the assassination. Gao Yun's wife Empress Li appears to have also died in the incident. Feng Ba, upon hearing of the assassination, readied his troops and waited for the situation to become clear, but two off his soldiers Zhang Tai and Li Sang advanced into the palace and beheaded Li and Tao. The officials all supported Feng Ba to take the throne, and so he did.

Reign

Feng Ba made his brother Feng Sufu the Duke of Fanyang the prime minister, and other important posts went to Sun Hu, Zhang Xing, his brother Feng Hong the Duke of Ji, his cousin Feng Wani the Duke of Guangchuan, and another cousin's son Feng Ruchen the Duke of Shanggu. He honored his mother as princess dowager, and he created his wife as princess and his son Feng Yong as crown prince. Both Feng Ba and Feng Sufu were considered diligent, frugal, and intelligent, and during this period, Northern Yan was considered well-governed, being able to fend off the much stronger rival Northern Wei.

In 410, Feng Ba had to deal with a major internal disturbance. Feng Wani and Feng Ruchen both felt that they contributed much to Feng Ba's success, and therefore were resentful that they were not at Longcheng and in control of the imperial government but were required to serve as commanding generals at the cities of Feiru and Bailang . They therefore rose in rebellion together. Feng Ba sent Feng Hong and Zhang Xing to attack them, and after they were defeated by Feng Hong and Zhang, they surrendered, but Feng Hong executed them regardless.

That year, Feng Ba buried Gao Yun and Gao Yun's wife with imperial honors, but curiously used Gao Yun's name in the edict regarding burial, without observing naming taboo.

In 411, the of Rouran, Yujiulü Hulü offered a tribute of 3,000 horses to Feng Ba and requested to marry Feng Ba's daughter Princess Lelang. Feng Ba, believing that an alliance with Rouran would be beneficial to his state, gave Princess Lelang in marriage to Yujiulü Hulü.

In 414, Feng Ba sent his official Chu Kuang to his ancestral home of Changle to find his clan members, and Chu Kuang returned with 5,000 households, headed by Feng Ba's cousins Feng Mai and Feng Du . Feng Ba also found his brother Feng Pi in Goguryeo and welcomed him back, creating him the Duke of Changshan.

Later that year, Yujiulü Hulü, who was about to in turn marry one of his daughters to Feng Ba, was overthrown by his nephew Yujiulü Buluzhen , and the coup leaders sent him and his daughter to Northern Yan. Feng Ba treated him as an honored guest and, as originally planned, took his daughter as a concubine. Yujiulü Hulü requested that Feng Ba send an army to escort him home, and Feng Ba, with some reluctance, sent his general Wan Ling to escort Yujiulü Hulü, but Wan killed Yujiulü Hulü on the way and returned. Instead, Feng Ba entered into an alliance with the new khan Yujiulü Datan, who had in turn overthrown Yujiulü Buluzhen.

Later that year, Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei sent a messenger, Huniuyu Shimen , to try to negotiate peace with Northern Yan, but when Huniuyu arrived at Helong, he refused to enter the Northern Yan palace, demanding that Feng Ba come out of his palace and accept Emperor Mingyuan's edict . Feng Ba refused and dragged Huniuyu into the palace. Huniuyu refused to bow, and Feng Ba had his guards press Huniuyu's head down, and then imprisoned him. Later, on several occasions, Huniuyu insulted Feng Ba, but Feng Ba overruled suggestions to have him executed, stating that Huniuyu was just being faithful to his state. He later tried several times to have Huniuyu submit, but Huniuyu each time refused. Feng Ba, instead, entered into an alliance with the emperor Helian Bobo.

Around the new year 415, Feng Sufu died. Contrary to the usual customs of mourning a subject at most three times, he mourned his brother seven times.

Later in 415, Sun Hu's brothers Sun Boren , Sun Chizhi , and Sun Yiba , dissatisfied with the lack of promotions, complained. Feng Ba executed the three and promoted Sun Hu to try to pacify him, but Sun Hu became depressed, so Feng Ba poisoned him to death. Meanwhile, the general Wu Yinti was also unhappy that he was not promoted and planned to offer his defense post to Goguryeo, and Feng Ba executed him.

In 416, the Northern Yan general Kuruguan Bin , who had earlier defected from Northern Yan to Northern Wei but then defected back to Northern Yan, was attacked by Northern Wei's Emperor Mingyuan, and Northern Wei forces killed not only Kuruguan Bin, but also two other Northern Yan generals, Kuruguan Chang and Kuruguan Ti , probably relatives of Kuruguan Bin.

In 418, Northern Wei's Emperor Mingyuan made a surprise attack against Northern Yan, surrounding and sieging Helong. Feng Ba defended the city against Northern Wei attack and held it. Northern Wei forces seized some 10,000 households from Northern Yan and withdrew.

During the next few years, Northern Wei concentrated its efforts against Liu Song and Xia, and there did not appear to be major confrontations again between Northern Wei and Northern Yan.

In 426, Feng Ba's crown prince Feng Yong died, and he created another son, Feng Yi , crown prince.

In 430, Feng Ba was seriously ill, and he issued an edict transferring his authorities to Feng Yi. However, Feng Ba's favorite concubine Consort Song wanted to have her son Feng Shouju inherit the throne, and therefore told Feng Yi that Feng Ba would soon recover and that he should not be so anxious to take over authority; Feng Yi agreed and retreated to his palace. Consort Song then falsely issued orders in Feng Ba's name cutting off communications with the outside, and Feng Yi and Feng Ba's other sons, as well as imperial officials, were not allowed to see Feng Ba. Only one of her trusted officials, Hu Fu , was able to enter the palace to be in charge of security. However, Hu was secretly resentful of Consort Song's ambitions, and he informed Feng Hong, who was prime minister in this point, of her intentions. Feng Hong immediately attacked the palace and seized control of it. Feng Ba, hearing up this, died in shock. Feng Hong then took the throne himself and, after defeating Feng Yi's troops, slaughtered all of Feng Ba's sons.

Era name

* ''Taiping'' 409-430

Personal information

* Father
** Feng An , Western Yan general
* Mother
**
* Wife
** Princess Sun
* Major Concubines
** Consort Song, mother of Prince Shouju
** Consort Yujiulü, daughter of Yujiulü Hulü, Khan Aidougai of Rouran
* Children
** Feng Yong , the Crown Prince
** Feng Yi , the Crown Prince
** Feng Shouju
** Princess Lelang, wife of Yujiulü Hulü, Khan Aidougai of Rouran